Slide 1Versatility of carbonVariety in carbon skeletonsFunctional groupsFunctional groupsFunctional groups 3.2Functional groups 3.2Functional groups 3.2Functional groups 3.2Slide 10Slide 11Synthesis of Polymers 3.3Breakdown of Polymers 3.3Polymer breakdown and synthesis in the bodyCarbohydrates (slides15-24 of this file)SugarsMonosaccharides 3.4Linear and ring structures of glucose 3.5Synthesis of disaccharides 3.7aPolysaccharidesStorage polysaccharides--starch and glycogen 3.8Structural polysaccharides—cellulose 3.9bImportance of different types of glycosidic linkages 3.8 & 3.9Slide 24Slide 25Nucleotides 3.21 and 3.22aSlide 27Nucleotides 3.21 and 3.22bHydrogen bonding in DNA 3.20Hydrogen bonding in DNA 14.9Slide 31Functions of proteinsFunctions of proteinsStructure and Function of Macromolecules(Chapter 3)Carbon can form covalent bonds with many other atomsCarbon(valence = 4)Most frequently bonded to hydrogen, other carbon atomsDiversity in biological molecules arises partly from variations in-carbon skeletons-functional groupsVersatility of carbonHH HHHCH HH HHHHHHHHHHHHHH H HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HH HH HH HH H HHHHH HHHHHHHHCCC C CC C C C C C CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCHHHHHHH(a) Length(b) Branching(c) Double bonds(d) RingsEthanePropaneButane2-methylpropane(isobutane)1-Butene 2-ButeneCyclohexane BenzeneVariety in carbon skeletonsFunctional groupsCarbon atoms can also form covalent bonds with other atoms; most common/important in biological molecules: oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur.These are often arranged in functional groups attached to C skeleton.Small variations in functional groups can have large effects on function.Functional groupsFunctional groups most important in biological molecules•Hydroxyl•Carbonyl•Carboxyl•Amino•Sulfhydryl•Phosphate•MethylProperties/Comments•PolarO electronegative•Hydrophilic Carbonyl group can be in middle or at end of molecule Functional groups 3.2Properties/Comments•Mostly ionized (negatively charged) at pH of cell•Polar, hydrophilic•Acidic, undergoes reversible ionization (loses H+)NHHH+N HHFunctional groups 3.2•Basic, undergoes reversible ionization (gains H+)•Mostly ionized (positively charged) at pH of cell•Polar, hydrophilicProperties/Comments•Interaction between two sulfhydryl groups are critical for protein structure•Acidic•Always ionized at pH of cell•Polar, hydrophilic•Critical for cellular energy transfers (ATP)Functional groups 3.2Role in protein regulationProperties/Comments•Not hydrophilic, not reactive•Methylation (addition methyl group) regulates gene expression, hormone activityFunctional groups 3.2nucleic acids,othersFour major classes of macromolecules•Carbohydrates•Nucleic acids•Proteins•Lipids Polymers: long molecule consisting of many similar subunits called monomers linked by covalent bondsHave multiple functions in cellsHow do the structural features of macromolecules contribute to their cellular functions?Synthesis and breakdown of polymersSynthesis of Polymers 3.3Polymerization: synthesis of polymers from monomers• Catalyzed by enzymes• Requires energy23HOShort polymer Unlinked monomerHO H HO HH2OLonger polymerHO HDehydration reactionBreakdown of Polymers 3.3• Catalyzed by enzymes• Releases energy• Generates supply of monomers23HOShort polymer Unlinked monomerHO H HO HH2OLonger polymerHO HHydrolysis reactionPolymer breakdown and synthesis in the bodyA. HydrolysisB. DehydrationC. Requires enzymesD. Requires energyE. Releases energyF. PolymerizationBreakdownSynthesisCarbohydrates (slides15-24 of this file)Carbohydrates•Include both sugars (small carbohydrates) and their polymers•Serve as energy storage and structural moleculesSugarsMonosaccharides•Smallest, simplest sugars•Serve as fuels, building blocks of disaccharides and polysaccharides•Molecular formula: (CH2O)n–Triose (3 C) C3H6O3–Hexose (6 C) C6H12O6•Suffix: -oseLength of C backboneMonosaccharides 3.4Linear and ring structures of glucose 3.5Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharides by dehydrationSynthesis of disaccharides 3.7aglycosidiclinkagePolysaccharidesPolysaccharides: polymers of sugars•Formed by polymerization/dehydration•Structure and function determined by monomer composition and the positions of glycosidic linkages•Have energy storage and structural roles0.5 µmMitochondriaGlycogen granulesStorage polysaccharides--starch and glycogen 3.8Starch: a plant polysaccharideGlycogen: an animal polysaccharidePolymers ofglucoseBroken down to glucose by hydrolysis when energy needed1 µmChloroplastStarch granulesStructural polysaccharides—cellulose 3.9bCellulose•also a polymer of glucose•major component of the rigid walls of plant cells--provides structural support•most abundant organic compound on Earth•target of biofuels researchCottonImportance of different types of glycosidic linkages 3.8 & 3.9Specifically recognized and hydrolyzed by human enzymesUsable form of energy for humansCannot be hydrolyzed by humansCan be hydrolyzed by some other organismsStarch and cellulose are both polymers of glucose, but have different glycosidic linkagesGut bacteria produce cellulase: an enzyme that digests celluloseFungi are key producers of cellulase: biomass recyclingChitin—exoskeletons of insects and crustaceansNucleic acids •store and transmit hereditary informationTwo types•Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)--double-stranded•Ribonucleic acid (RNA)--single-stranded•Both are polymers of nucleotidesNucleic acids (slides 25-30 of this file)Nucleotides 3.21 and 3.22aNucleotides—monomer building blocks of nucleic acidsNucleic acidor polynucleotideNucleotides 3.21 and 3.22bNucleotides—monomer building blocks of nucleic acidsHydrogen bonding in DNA 3.20Hydrogen bonding in DNA 14.9Proteins•Encoded by genes•Composed of amino acids •Nucleotide sequence of gene specifies amino acid sequence of protein•More than 50% of the dry mass of most cells•Most structurally complex macromolecules•Each protein has a unique structure (shape) that confers a unique function•Huge array of functionsFunctions of proteinsEnzymesDefenseStorageTransport proteinsEnzymeVirusAntibodiesBacteriumOvalbuminAmino acidsfor embryoTransportproteinCell membraneFunction: Selective acceleration of chemical reactionsExample: Digestive enzymes catalyze the hydrolysisof bonds in food molecules.Function: Protection against diseaseExample: Antibodies inactivate and help destroyviruses and