Psyc 344 EXAM 2—chapters 3 & 7 and lecture notes 9/8-9/17LECTURE NOTESHistory of Human KnowledgeMetaphysical: trying to understand the world around us - Anism—natural forces are alive and influence human behavior- Mythology and Religion—instead of forces in nature, deities influence humans behavior- Astrology—human behavior determined by alignment and movement of the starsPhilosophy—reason and logic to understand behavior- Positivism—our understanding of human behavior should only follow what we can directly observe. Physiology and the physical sciences—Observation of human body- Leads to some of the earliest types of medicineo For a long time medicine was not based on positivism until later. o Civil war lead to real systematic and technological advances in medicine (1840’s-70s) Started making a link between cleanliness and health Pasteur—germ don’t generate spontaneously but are spread and sharedAlternatives to the Scientific MethodPeirce’s Foundations of Beliefs (1966)—(Scientific method and empirical reasoning counters all below and experience)- Method of tenacity—its always been done that way- Method of authority—someone in authority said so- A priori method—“Fixation of Beliefs”—personal logic and reason. Four Ways of Knowing—Intuition, Authority, Logic, and ObservationRanking in science: observation, logic, intuition, authority. “This I believe” chart showing sources of information—CHAPTER 2, pg 38—chart mentioned 9/10-Based on experience: no comparison group and has confounds-Based on intuition: biased by faulty thinking and biased by motivation-Based on authority: Could be based on the authority’s research, could be the authority’s personal experience, could be the authority’s intuition-Based on research: scientific sources (by psychologists, for psycholgists), you have journal articles (either empirical or review articles), chapters in edited books, full length books. You can also have other sources (by psychologists, journalists, or laypeople for a popular audience) through trade books (look for references), Magazines and newspaper articles (look for research) and Wikis (think critically. Empirical reasoning—based on observation! The key?:- Careful logic ●Measurement- Organized observation ●Open to scrutiny of othersEmpirical reasoning in Psycological Science—Historical FiguresWudntGalton (Power of Prayer)- Found the mean age of death in Royal family and clergy , doctors, and military.- Said prayer didn’t work—royal family average death age is lowest.- Turns out there’s not enough diversity in royal gene pool due to INBREEDING. Ceci’s eyewitness testimony- Stereotypes and Sam Stone (children). - Implanting false memories is really easy.- Kept asking questions like “what were you doing when Sam Stone stole the missing toy?”Asch’s conformity- Consensus and line judgment - Lots of confederates—a majority said they were not same length but 40% said they were the same . lllExperiment making people happier, healthier, and more money- Quasi-experimental design—self selected- Focused on the poor and gave poor people marriage consoling by taking money out of welfare for the study and class. Tom Barlett’s The great mom and dad experiment”- Chronicles of Higher education. Publishing in peer reviewed Journals—articles are reviewed by experts and in APA styleAbstract, Intro, Method, Results, Discussion, ReferencesStroop test: list of words or set of colored boxes that say the name of the color used. Scientists are set out to disprove theories.“Discovery Phase” of Science- Idea Generation- Literature search- Define concepts and variables- Study design- Implementation plan“Justification Phase” of Science- Must Provide Principled rationale for o Plan of studyo Data analysiso Conclusions- Controversieso Exploratory research and hunches- Ex: “Mr and Mrs Johnson” in Hispanics only video was not justifiedHypothesis-Generating Heuristics—ways to go from a broad theory to a general hypothesis1. Intensive case study—in depth examination of one person/case- E.g., HM and Anterograde amnesia—famous operation that resulted in an inability of him to form new memories, so he was kept in a hospital where he was studied all his life. He was able to learn somethings, but not able to form personal memories.- Used ini. Educational researchii. Policy makingiii. Organization and management analysisiv. City and regional planning2. Paradoxical incident—Seemingly contradictory event- e.g. Diffusion of responsibility (the more bystanders there are in an emergency, the less likely to help.3. Analogical thinking—using imagery to explain phenomena- E.g. Inoculation and resistance to propagandai. Ex: Vaccines—so you don’t get sick, I’m going to give you a little bit of this disease so you can build your resistance. ii. Involves the Art of Persuasion.4. Account for conflicting results—conflict in literature- E.g. supportive spouce: believed that those who are supportive more are more likely to have satisfying relationships. BUT evidence for the other wayi. Showed that supporters have a positive correlation in satisfactory while supporties have a negative correlationii. Invisible support is the best kind of support!!!5. Improving older ideas- Bem’s self-perception theory: i. Previous idea: attitudes shape behaviorii. New theory: behavior shapes attitudes- Skinner6. Serendipity- A felicitous or lucky discovery- E.g. Cockleburs and Velcro: a guy kept noticing that there were these things that kept sticking to his clothes and noticed they had little hooks on them. THEN realized he could use the design.CHAPTER 3—Three Claims, Four Validities: Interrogation tools for consumers or research.CHAPTER 7—Sampling: Estimating the Frequency of Behaviors and