Ling 140: English Grammar for Teachers Jan Frodesen Winter, 2014Grammatical MetalanguageWhy is knowing metalanguage helpful?Advantages of knowing metalanguage 1.Terminology offers ways to talk about grammar, to conceptualize it 2. Terminology serves a referential function • We can use these terms in subsequent reference to types of word, phrases, clauses, sentences or discourse features 3. By learning terms, you will have access to linguistic resources that use themParts of speech (word classes) What are criteria for identifying parts of speech?Criteria for Identifying Parts of Speech 1. Semantic: What is the meaning of the part of speech? How can we define a noun? A verb? An adverb? Problems with semantic identification: Definitions could describe other parts of speech (e.g., the noun definition person, place or thing could describe an adjective too – colors could be both)Criteria for Identifying Parts of Speech 2. Structural: Formal characteristics such as position in a sentence, adjacent function words, constituents. Position: She ran ____ the street. Adjacent function words: This ____ is hot! Constituents: Grammatical morphemes such as plural, possessive, derivational suffixes, tense markersCriteria for Identifying Parts of Speech Problems with structural identification: • Not all words have distinctive morphemes to identify them (e.g., blonde, catch) • Words function as different parts of speech (e.g., blonde hair, the blonde over there; a good catch; I catch your drift!)Criteria for Identifying Parts of Speech Words that can belong to more than one word class Word Word classes abstract, adult, antique, green noun, adjective wonder, rupture, sequence, drive, play, function noun, verb fast, hard adjective, adverb around, down, up adverb, preposition come, given, considering preposition, verb boring, open, locked adjective, verbCriteria for Identifying Parts of Speech 3. Functional: What grammatical function does the word have in a sentence? Example: My older brother bought a red car. Problems with functional identification: A word could appear in a slot such as subject but not be a noun (e.g., brick in The brick building is very old.)Criteria for Identifying Parts of Speech Conclusion: • The semantic, structural and functional criteria should all be considered in describing word classes. • We can best define parts of speech by a cluster of criteria as we consider their individual forms and contexts in phrases and sentences/utterances.Parts of Speech (Word classes) Major word classes • Nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs • These carry most of content meaning of utterances and • They are typically “open”: You can add new lexical items to these classes Minor Word Classes • Auxiliary verbs, prepositions, pronouns, determiners and conjunctions • These play more structural roles • They are typically more “closed”: usually new words are not added to themExplaining Grammar to English LearnersOr… once again, why is knowing metalanguage (and grammar rules) helpful in teaching English? Teacher-learner Exchanges Let’s consider the following three exchanges between English learners and teachers from Keys to Teaching Grammar to English Language Learners, Keith Folse, University of Michigan Press, 2009Teacher-learner Exchanges ELL = English Language Learner T= Teacher Exchange 1: ELL: Can I say much people? T: No, you should say many people. ELL: Why?Teacher-learner Exchanges Exchange 1, continued T: Because… we don’t say much people. We say many people. ELL: ? (puzzled look) T: OK? (hoping that the ELL will say yes Note: The teacher has not explained anythingTeacher-learner Exchanges An explanation for Exchange 1: We use many to quantify count nouns. People is a countable noun (e.g., we can say three people). We use much to quantify noncount nouns (such as homework, information, rain).Teacher-learner Exchanges Exchange 2 ELL: Tomorrow I will to go to the movie with my friends. T: That’s great. Tomorrow you will go. (Emphasizes will by saying it more loudly)Teacher-learner Exchanges Exchange 2, continued ELL: Yes, to the movie. T: Yes, I know, but you said you “will to go,” but in English, we don’t use to here. ELL: Really? OK, thanks. Why not? T: It doesn’t sound right. ELL: What do you mean? T: It’s awkward. Note: The teacher has not given any explanation at all.Teacher-learner Exchanges An explanation for Exchange 2: Simple explanation: After will, we always use a base form (to-less) verb. General rule: Modal verbs are followed by a base form verb.Teacher-learner Exchanges Exchange 3 ELL: My mother is from the Philippines. T: Your mother is from the Philippines. (emphasizes the by saying it more loudly)Teacher-learner Exchanges Exchange 3, continued ELL: The Philippines? I can’t say just Philippines? T: No. You need to say the Philippines. ELL: Why? T: Ummm… well.. We use the with country names. ELL: Like the United States? T: Yes, exactly ELL: Hmm…. So I need to say the Mexico and the Saudi Arabia?Teacher-learner Exchanges Exchange 3, continued T: Well, no. We don’t use the with those two countries. ELL: Why not? T: Because they’re exceptions. ELL: Which one is the exception – the Philippines or Mexico? T: Ummm…. Well… Note: The teacher does not know the rule. The teacher has confused the student even more now.Teacher-learner Exchanges An explanation for Exchange 3: We use the definite article the with island groups (the West Indies, the British Isles, the Falklands) We also use the with countries that begin with Republic (the Republic of the Philippines, the Republic of Korea) and those that have plural nouns in their names such as the United States. We do not usually use the before countries that do not have a plural