Montreal v. Kyoto Scott Barrett Columbia UniversityOne WorldMany CountriesDomestic v. International Title IV Kyoto Obligations Caps SO2 by plant. Caps GHG by states. Trading Yes Yes Monitoring Precise Self-reporting Participation Mandatory Voluntary Compliance • Fine > $3,000/ton 2005 > price. • Excess subtracted from next year. • Non-compliance a felony Article 18: “procedures and mechanisms…entailing binding consequences…be adopted by means of an amendment.”A Study in Contrast OZONE CLIMATE Restricts emissions All countries Industrialized countries Cuts emissions Up to 100% Around 5% Duration Permanent 2008-2012 Consequence Ozone layer restored 2050 Negligible Why the difference?Two kinds of ozone Bad ozone is in the troposphere. Good ozone is in the stratosphere.10 September 200930 November 2009Change over timeThe underlying PD ΠP ΠA 0 N-1 Number of others that play Abate Card game: $5 if keep red card; $1 for every red card handed in by anyone. Suppose N = 100. $5 $1 $100 $104To be effective, a treaty must • Deter non-participation. • Enforce compliance. • Do both of these things even while requiring that parties do much more than they would were they to act independently (unilaterally).Montreal Protocol • Negotiated in 1987; amended 4 times and adjusted 6 times since then. • Bans production and consumption of the ODSs. • Achieves universal participation. (In 2008, the only non-parties were Andorra, Holy See, Iraq, San Marino, Timor Leste. Since then, they’ve all joined!) • By around 2050-2070, the ozone layer is expected to be restored. • How and why did the MP succeed?Cost-benefit analysis of the Montreal Protocol Source: EPA (1988). NoControlsMontrealProtocolUnilateralImplementationof MPOzone Depletion (%)By 2000By 2050By 21001.0%15.7%50.0%0.8%1.9%1.2%0.9%10.3%49.0%Payoffs to the US(Billions of 1985 $US)BenefitsCostsNet BenefitsB-C Ratio$3,575$21$3,554170$1,373$21$1,35265Implications • Ozone depletion favored unilateral implementation of MP by at least some rich countries. • Was MP a success? Or did it merely codify what states would have done anyway? • Three major worries: – (1) production would relocate (leakage); – (2) poor countries would not cut back; – (3) it would be harder to sustain bigger cuts, involving a wider range of ODSs. • MP addressed all three.Carrot • Developing countries had “common but differentiated responsibilities.” • Rich countries to pay “incremental costs” for developing country implementation.Ratification of the Montreal Protocol0204060801001201401601801988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999Number of PartiesTransitionEconomiesIndustrialArticle 5London AmendmentStick • The credible threat of a trade restriction sustained full participation and deterred non-compliance.Cooperation & trade restrictions 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 90.1470.2470.3470.4470.547Πn Πs IEA Game with Trade Sanctions Number of other signatories • Minimum participation level set to 11 countries making up at least 2/3s of global consumption.The difference Montreal madeIf the MP had not workedClimate changeFramework Convention • Aim should be to stabilize “greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous interference with the climate system.” • Reasonable? Only non-participants are Andorra and Holy See (Iraq, and Somalia joined 2009).Kyoto ProtocolKyoto Protocol • Sets emission limits 2008-2012 for Annex I countries only. • Applies to CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs, SF6. • Allows trading. • Clean development mechanism. • Enters into force after being ratified by at least 55 countries making up at least 55% of Annex I CO2 emissions.Problems • No enforcement – Non-participation of the U.S. – Non-compliance by Canada and... • Trading may not reduce emissions (“hot air”). • Much too short term. – In a recent report, the government of Canada says, “While Canada remains committed to meeting its reporting requirements under the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol, the focus of Canadian action on climate change is not on the remaining years of the Kyoto Protocol. The world is now turning the page on Kyoto and is focused on reaching a new agreement in Copenhagen in December 2009.” • Very modest; can it be made more ambitious? • What is to follow?Reasons for Kyoto’s Failure • The economics are not as favorable as for ozone.Ozone v. Climate EconomicsReasons for Kyoto’s Failure • Economics not as favorable as for ozone. • In contrast to the MP, few countries have an incentive to do much unilaterally. – Trade leakage; global energy markets: MCs steep. – Gradual climate change winners & losers. – Abrupt/catastrophic climate change uncertain. • Kyoto difficult to enforce (trade restrictions problematic).Reasons for Kyoto’s Failure • Economics not as favorable as for ozone. • In contrast to the MP, few countries have an incentive to do much unilaterally. – Trade leakage; global energy markets: MCs steep. – Gradual climate change winners & losers. – Abrupt/catastrophic climate change uncertain. • Kyoto difficult to enforce – Carrots: Will rich countries pay for abatement? – Sticks: Trade restrictions problematic.Why did the U.S. not ratify? • Senate Resolution August 1997. – the United States should not be a signatory to any protocol …which would • (A) mandate new commitments to limit or reduce greenhouse gas emissions for the Annex I Parties, unless [it] also limit[s] or reduce[s] greenhouse gas emissions for Developing Country Parties within the same compliance period, or • (B) would result in serious harm to the economy of the United States….U.S. Strategy • Under Clinton – Negotiate and then seek ratification. • Under Obama – Secure domestic legislation and then agree to do this as part of an international agreement.Congress • Still wants issues raised in 1997 Senate resolution to be addressed. • House bill says: – The Administrator, in consultation with the Department of State and the United States Trade Representative, shall annually prepare and certify a report to the Congress regarding whether China and India have adopted greenhouse gas emissions standards at least as strict as