Physics 2102 Gabriela GonzálezLight is a wave When two beams of light combine, we can have constructive or destructive “interference.” http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/applets/fourier.htmlThe light travels more slowly in more dense media: v=c/n (n = index of refraction) Since the period T is the same, the wavelength has to change (v=λ/T) Snell’s law! Wavelength: Frequency:A red light beam with wavelength λ=0.625µm travels through glass (n=1.46) a distance of 1mm. A second beam, parallel to the first one and originally in phase with it, travels the same distance through sapphire (n=1.77). • How many wavelengths are there of each beam inside the material? In glass, λg=0.625µm/1.46= 0.428 µm and Ng=L/ λg=2336.45 In sapphire, λs=0.625µm/1.77= 0.353 µm (UV!) and Ns=L/ λs=2832.86 • What is the phase difference in the beams when they come out? The difference in wavelengths is Ns-Ng=496.41. Each wavelength is 360o, so ΔN=496.41 means Δφ=ΔNx360o=0.41x360o=148o • How thick should the glass be so that the beams are exactly out of phase at the exit? (destructive interference!) ΔN=L/ λs- L/ λg= (L/ λ)(n2-n1)=0.31 (L/ λ)=m+1/2 A thickness L=(m+0.5) 2.02 µm would make the waves OUT of phase. For example, 1.009 mm = 499.5 x 2.02 µm makes them come OUT of phase, and 1.010 mm = 500.0 x 2.02 µm makes them IN phase.Thin film interference: The patterns of colors that one sees in oil slicks on water or in bubbles is produced by interference of the light bouncing off the two sides of the film. To understand this we need to discuss the phase changes that occur when a wave moves from one medium to the another where the speed is different. This can be understood with a mechanical analogy.Reflection, refraction and changes of phase: Consider a transverse pulse moving in a rope, that reaches a juncture with another rope of different density. A reflected pulse is generated. The reflected pulse is on the same side of the rope as the incident one if the speed of propagation in the rope of the right is faster than on the left. The reflected pulse is on the opposite side of the rope if the speed of propagation in the right is slower than on the left. The extreme case of no speed on the right corresponds to a rope anchored to a wall. If we have a wave instead of a pulse “being on the opposite side of the rope” means 180 degrees out of phase, or one-half wavelength out of phase.Phase with respect to incident beam: r1: φ1 = 180o (if n2>n1) φ1 = 0o (if n2<n1) r2: φ2 = 2n2L/λ + 180o (if n3>n2) φ1 = 2n2L/λ (if n3<n2) if we have air-oil-water (or air), Constructive interference → 2n2L/λ = (2m+1)π%Destructive interference → 2n2L/λ = 2m π%To make mirrors that reflects light of only a given wavelength, a coating of a specific thickness is used so that there is constructive interference of the given wavelength. Materials of different index of refraction are used, most commonly MgFe2 (n=1.38) and CeO2 (n=2.35), and are called “dielectric films”. What thickness is necessary for reflecting IR light with λ=1064nm? n=2.35 n=1.38 First ray: Δφ=180deg=π Second ray: Δφ=2L(2π/(λ/n))=π %=> L= λCeo2/4=(λ/n)/4=113nm Third ray? If wafer has the same thickness (and is of the same material), Δφ=4L(2π/(λ/n)=2π: destructive! Choose MgFe2 wafer so that Δφ=(2n1L1+2n2L2) (2π/λ)= π+ 2n2L2 (2π/λ)=3π % => L2= λ/2n2 = 386 nm We can add more layers to keep reflecting the light, until no light is transmitted: all the light is either absorbed or reflected.Christian Huygens 1629-1695 All points in a wavefront serve as point sources of spherical secondary waves. After a time t, the new wavefront will be the tangent to all the resulting spherical waves.Young’s double slit experimentYoung’s double slit experiment Path difference: ΔL=d sin θ Bright fringe: ΔL=mλ = d sin θ%Dark fringe: ΔL=(m+1/2)λ = d sin θ%The intensity on the screen is I/I0=4cos2φ/2 with φ=(2πd/λ)sinθ %Michelson interferometers: As we saw in the previous example, interference is a spectacular way of measuring small distances (like the thickness of a soap bubble), since we are able to resolve distances of the order of the wavelength of the light (for instance, for yellow light, we are talking about 0.5 of a millionth of a meter, 500nm). This has therefore technological applications. In the Michelson interferometer, light from a source (at the left, in the picture) hits a semi-plated mirror. Half of it goes through to the right and half goes upwards. The two halves are bounced back towards the half plated mirror, interfere, and the interference can be seen by the observer at the bottom. The observer will see light if the two distances travelled d1 and d2 are equal, and will see darkness if they differ by half a wavelength. Einstein’s messengers (einsteinsmessengers.org)Michelson-Morley experiment Michelson won the Nobel prize in 1907, "for his optical precision instruments and the spectroscopic and metrological investigations carried out with their aid" "The interpretation of these results is that there is no displacement of the interference bands. ... The result of the hypothesis of a stationary ether is thus shown to be incorrect." (A. A. Michelson, Am. J. Sci, 122, 120 (1881))The largest Michelson interferometer in the world is in Livingston, LA, in LSU owned land (it is operated by a project funded by the National Science Foundation run by Caltech and MIT, and LSU collaborates in the project). http://www.ligo-la.caltech.edu Mirrors are suspended with wires and will move detecting ripples in the gravitational field due to astronomical events.http://www.amnh.org/sciencebulletins/?sid=a.f.gravity.20041101&src=l American Museum of Natural History Science Bulletins Gravity: Making WavesExamplesOcean waves moving at a speed of 4.0m/s are approaching a beach at an angle of 30o to the normal. The water depth changes abruptly near the shore, and the wave speed there drops to 3.0m/s. Close to the beach, what is the direction of wave motion? Refraction index is (inversely) related to wave speed: n2/n1=v1/v2=4/3 Snell’s law: n2sinθ2=n1sinθ1 θ2=asin((n1/n2)sinθ1) =asin(.75sin(30o)) =22oExample: Solar panels Semiconductors such a silicon are used to build solar cells. They are coated with a transparent thin film, whose index of refraction is 1.45, in order to minimize reflected light. If the index of
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