COMM 1301 Exam 3 Review- Dr. Beth Olsen, UH Chapter 7 Cognitive Theories:1. Attribution theory - Heider, Kelley:- Focuses on the ways in which people infer the cause of their own and others' behaviors- Notion of naïve scientists- People are "naïve scientists." In everyday activities, people engage in a relatively unsophisticated version of the observation and analysis that social scientists use when conducting lab experiments. Based on such observation and analysis, people attempt to assign causation and meaning to the actions of others as well as of themselves.- Causal inference (e.g., person, stimulus)- Possible explanations or causal inferences: A person attribution affects how we respond to Jae!(He has a sense of humor. He is a guy who always tries to draw attention from people.) A stimulus attributionHis friend or story was really funny.  A circumstance attribution the circumstance under which the conversation took place was hilarious.- Examples of fundamental attribution error, ultimate attribution error, ego-defensive bias, & negativity effects Fundamental attribution error- one of the most persistent findings, is a tendency to attribute the cause of events to personal qualities/dispositions.(1) People are not always objective when making inferences aboutthemselves and others.(2) People often make swift judgments based on overt clues and emotional factors.(3)People generally feel insensitive to circumstantial factors/contexts that cause events when considering others' behavior (observer – "taken out of context").(4) People generally are sensitive to circumstances when considering their own behavior (actor) Ultimate attribution error- Intercultural communicators are particularly likely to commit the “ultimate attribution error.” --We view negative acts committed by out group members as a stable trait of the out group, and view positive acts committed by out group members as exceptions to normal behavior.--While fundamental attribution error is about an individual, ultimate attribution error is about a group of people.--People with ultimate attribution error tend to see members of other races or religions as genetically and/or dispositionally inferior or flawed, while people from their own racial or religiousin-group, upon committing the same negative behaviors, are good people who are dealing with specific situations the best they can. Ego-defensive bias- We tend to attribute our successes to internal sources (e.g., ability and motivation) and attribute failures outward to such factors as bad luck or unusual task difficulty. We make these biased attributions in order to preserve a positive image of ourselves.  Negativity effects- When presented with both positive and negative information about a person, the negative information assumes an inordinate weight in the formation of an overall impression of the person. --Since people expect positive things to occur in everyday lives, negative instances tend to stand out more.--People are also sensitive to potential threats in their environments for purposes of survival.- High-context vs. low-context culture (situation vs. disposition)- High-context culture (HCC) members are, for example, predisposed toward situational features and situationally based explanations.  Low context culture (LCC) members are predisposed toward dispositional characteristics and dispositionally based explanations. In initial intercultural interactions, HCC and LCC communicators will seek out information deemed salient in each culture. -e.g., Social background/demographic info for HCC vs. Personal/individual info for LCC2. Communication accommodation theory - Giles:- Examines underlying motivations and consequences of shifts in communication behavior- 2 premises/motives for accommodation-1) During communication, people try to accommodate or adjust their style of speech to others2) They do this in order to gain approval, to increase communication efficiency, and to maintain positive social identity with the person to whom they are talking.- Convergence and divergence (notion, examples)- Convergence: is a strategy by which we adapt our communication behavior in such a way as to become more similar to another person. -e.g., talking alikeExamples: -slowing down or speeding up speech rate-lengthening or shortening pauses and utterances-using tag questions-verbal intensifiers-choice of topics, stories-listening style-attentiveness-Powerless individuals tend to adopt the verbal and nonverbal styles of those with power. -Females may use communication convergence in order to "say the right thing" and to "fit in" among organizational superiors, usually males – a potentially double bind ("speaklike a man, but act like a lady").-Interviewees often shift their speech rate and duration to sound likable to an interviewer. -Sales people often converge their speech styles with those of customers. Divergence: Divergence is accentuating the verbal and nonverbal differences between speakers. It is often enacted to underscore social differences or maintain a social distance. It is likely to occur when individuals believe that others are members of undesirable groups, hold distasteful attitudes, or display unsavory appearances-e.g., talking differentlyExamples: -speaking a dialect or language that the other person feels uncomfortable-using a thicker accent-monotone-exaggerated animation-using a formal, jargon-laden style-slowing down speech rate (to slow down people who speak rapidly)-speaking softly or loudly- Divergence strategies- Maintenance (or under-accommodation) – persisting in your original communication style regardless of the communication behavior of the other. People with strong ethnic pride often use maintenance to underscore that identity and distinctiveness. Over-accommodation – demeaning or patronizing talk in which excessive concern is paid to vocal clarity or amplitude, message simplification, or repetition -Some nurses use "baby talk" to the institutionalized elderly regardless of the individual's capabilities.-People often shout, slow down, or avoid addressing blind persons.3. Theory of cognitive dissonance – Festinger:- Assumptions- People are more comfortable with consistency or homeostasis/balance than they are with inconsistency.  Attitude change can result from information that disrupts this balance.- 3 types of relationships among cognitive