CEP 260 1nd Edition Lecture 1 Outline of Current Lecture I. Nature of StressII. Sources of StressIII. Responding to StressIV. Effects of StressV. Tolerating StressCurrent LectureThe Nature of Stress• Stress is “any circumstances that threaten or are perceived to threaten one’s well-being and thereby tax one’s coping abilities”.• Stress has several characteristics.1. Stress is a common, everyday event.• Both major and minor problems can be stressful.• Even daily “hassles” can have negative effects on our well-being.• Stressful events have a cumulative impact.2. Stress is subjective. Not everyone feels the same degree of stress from the same event.• The difference may depend on how we appraise events • We first make a primary appraisal, or initial evaluation of the relevance, level of threat, and degree of stress the event brings.• If viewed as stressful, we make a secondary appraisal, or an evaluation of our ability to cope.3. Ambient stress – refers to chronic negative conditions embedded in the environment.These notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute.• Certain types have been associated with elevated stress hormones 4. Stress is influenced by culture.• Culture affects which types of stress we experience.• Cultural change is a major source of stress in most cultures.Major Sources of Stress• Acute stressors – “threatening events that have a relatively short duration and a clear endpoint”.• Chronic stressors – “threatening events that have a relatively long duration and no readily apparent time limit”.• Anticipatory stressors – “upcoming or future events that are perceived to be threatening”.• This stressor is unique to humans• Frustration – “occurs in any situation in which the pursuit of some goal is thwarted”.• Internal conflict – “occurs when two or more incompatible motivations or behavioral impulses compete for expression”.• Approach – approach – must make a choice between two attractive goals.• Avoidance – avoidance – must make a choice between two unattractive goals.• Approach – avoidance – must choose whether or not to pursue ONE goal, which has both pros and cons.• Life changes – “any noticeable alterations in one’s living circumstances that require readjustment”. – Holmes and Rahe (1967) believe both positive and negative life changes are associated with physical illness.– They developed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) to assess health risk due to the accumulation of life changes• Pressure – “involves expectations or demands that one behave in a certain way”. • Pressure to perform• Pressure to conformResponding to Stress• Stress responses occur at three levels:• Emotional responses• Physiological responses• Behavioral responses• Emotional responses are usually negative and fall into three categories:1. Annoyance, anger, and rage2. Apprehension, anxiety, and fear3. Dejection, sadness, and grief– However, stress can prompt positive emotional responses, which in turn• Increase creativity, flexibility in problem-solving, and• Enhance immune system functioning, increase valuable social support, and promote proactive coping.– Strong emotions may hamper or enhance our ability to cope with stress, depending on our level of arousal and the task complexity (see Figure 3.9).– The “inverted-U hypothesis” predicts that• For low complexity tasks, a high level of arousal is best;• For medium complexity tasks, a medium level of arousal is best; and• For high complexity tasks, a low level of arousal is best.• Physiological responses. – The fight-or-flight response - “a physiological reaction to threat that mobilizes anorganism for attacking (fight) or fleeing (flight) an enemy”.– It occurs in the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which “is made up of the nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glands”.– The Autonomic Nervous System is broken into two divisions • Sympathetic division mobilizes energy during emergencies, engages the fight-or-flight response.• Parasympathetic division conserves energy, has calming effect on body.– Unfortunately, the fight-flight response is not well suited for coping with modern threats.– Hans Seyle’s general adaptation syndrome is a “model of the body’s stress response, consisting of three stages” 1. Alarm phase – initial response to threat, fight-or-flight response engages.2. Resistance phase – if threat continues, physiological changes stabilize, coping begins.3. Exhaustion phase – if the threat continues too long, the body’s resources are depleted, leading to physical exhaustion and illness.– Two brain-body pathways control our physiological responses to stress The Catecholamine Pathway – hypothalamus activates sympathetic system; adrenal glands release catecholamines that mobilize the body for action. The Corticosteroid Pathway – hypothalamus signals pituitary gland to secrete ACTH; adrenal cortex to release corticosteroids that increase energy.• Behavioral responses to stress usually refer to coping, or “active efforts to master, reduce, or tolerate the demands created by stress”.– Coping response may be • Healthy (e.g., actively trying to solve a problem by asking for help or generating solutions) • Unhealthy (e.g., ignoring problem, indulging in alcohol, or excessive eating).The Potential Effects of Stress• Impaired task performance– Stress can cause people to “freeze up” or “crack under pressure”.– Elevated self-consciousness can disrupt attention to task.• Disruption of cognitive function– Increased tendency to jump to conclusions.– Decreased ability to carefully review options.– Decreased memory function.• Burnout – “a syndrome involving physical and emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and a lowered sense of self-efficacy that is attributable to work-related stress”.• Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) – “involves enduring psychological disturbance attributed to the experience of a major traumatic event”.– Symptoms include• Re-experiencing trauma via nightmares, flashbacks.• Emotional numbing, alienation, problems in social relations.• Elevated arousal, anxiety, and guilt.• Psychological problems and disorders• Chronic stress may