Semantics 91 Semantics: The meaning of words 10/24/04Three views of meaning:1. definitions, which are most highly valued culturally2. lists of features, which do not actually define an entity (as in 1 above), but instead seem to be the characteristics of the proto-typical (as in 3 below) 3. proto-types, with violations of the proto-typical being essentially what we code in describing an entityI. Definitions:Dictionary definitions: The nature of dictionary definitions: sense (denotation), connota-tion, register (social), collocational status Webster’s New World Dictionary of the American Language. Warner Books Paperback edition. 1983.lurk -extremely hard to define“1. to stay hidden, ready to attack, etc. 2. to move furtively”furtively: “done or acting in a stealthy manner, sneaky”assassinate -specific characteristics“to murder as assassins do”bird [n < OE. bridd, young bird] any of a class of warm-blooded vertebrates with feathers and wingsII. Lists of features:III. Proto-typicalityIV. categories of relationships:antonymsynonymsuperordinate vs. hyponymassociationshomophony vs. polysemySemantics 92 Polysemy refers to entries in the dictionary that are stored as variants of the same word, implying that we are talking about the same word with interrelated meanings. Homophony refers to dif-ferent words with coincidentally identical pro-nunciations.From a modern, non-historical perspective com-pare the following definitions. Which are poly-semy and which are (now) homophony?plant n. [ < L. planta, a sprout] 1. a living thing that cannot move voluntarily, has no sense organs, and synthesizes food from carbon diox-ide. 2. a soft-stemmed organism of this kind, as distinguished from a tree or shrub. 3. the machinery, buildings, etc. of a factory, etc. — vt. 1. to put into the ground to grow 2. to set firmly into position. 3. to settle; establish. 4. [Slang] to place (a person or thing) in such a way as to trick, trap, etc.vague versus ambiguousIV. Storage in the mindSemantics Table 1: Word relationshipsword presented responses analysesblackabovekittenfruitwarmalivesofaSemantics 93 Terms (< Brinton 2000:131-134) Paraphrase : two phrases having the same meaning. Lupe bought a car is a para-phrase of Lupe purchased an automobile and vice versa. (cf. synonymy—two words hav-ing the same meaning) Entailment , or implication : one statement entails another when the second fol-lows from the first. Sally lives in Chico entails that Sally lives in California . Note that this relationship is a one-way relationship, for example, Sally lives in California does not entail that Sally lives in Chico . Contradiction : if one is true, the other must be false. He is an orphan contradicts His parents are living or I spit out the beer I swallowed contradicts itself. Anomaly : Without meaning (given normal expectations about the world). From linguistics of the ‘50s and ‘60s: Colorless green ideas sleep furiously . Or, more mun-danely, The table laughed . (Figurative language and anomaly often overlap; this will be discussed later). Lexical ambiguity : “a word allows more than one meaning in context”. Example: an old friend, a large bill, he lost his head, they gave him a hand and so on. Note that the ambiguity may simply be a different reference or it may be metaphorical. Denotation/connotation : in addition to its literal or referential meaning a word may also “evoke feelings, attitudes, opinions (connotations).” Brinton’s examples:soldier warriorinsect bugrelax loafhound doggenerous extravagantillness disease ailment conditionfat obese plump portly stout substantial Brinton’s examples:a draft air blowing through a window when it is cold and undesireda breeze air blowing through a window when it is cool and desiredplans what Bush and Kerry both claim that themselves have—careful foresightschemes what Bush and Kerry both claim that the other has—ill-thought-out, perhaps devious or manipulativemanTable 1: Word relationshipsword presented responses analysesSemantics 94 Polysemy : more than one meaning out of context, but the meanings are related to one another.court: 1. enclosed area2. retinue of a sovereign3. judicial tribunalmouth: 1. opening through which animates take food2. the part of a river that opens into a lake or seafire: (various)bug: (various) Homonymy : two that sound and are spelled alike but different in meaning:bark 1. dog 2. treesound 1. noise 2. body of waterband 1. thin strip for enclosing an object2. group of peopleswallow 1. bird 2. ingest homophony : two words that sound the same (but are not necessarily spelled the same) but which have different meanings: (note that homonymy is a subset of homoph-ony).horse hoarseand so on Part-whole : (meronymy) Presuppositions : A presupposition is assumed before hand by an utterance. The test is whether the presupposed element is true not only when the utterance is positive but also when it is negated. Exercise: Attempt to discover what the sentences below presuppose.1. I realize that my husband doesn't love me.2. I'm afraid that my son is going to turn out to be as lazy as my husband.3. If you are going to be as unreasonable as you were last time we discussed this, then let's skipit.4. If Judy has to be so possessive, then I'd rather not be involved with her.5. If Boyd enjoyed my company, he wouldn't have left so early.6. If you knew how much I suffered, you wouldn't act this way. (3 interesting presuppositions; Isuffer and two others)7. Since my problem is trivial, I'd rather not take up valuable group time. ===Semantics 95 Synonymy.True synonymy is relatively rare, if not nonexistent. Sometimes words have the same sense but have different social values (registers), e.g. spit and expectorate . The words sofa and couch might be as close as possible to synonyms, although I suspect for many speak-ers a regional difference exists.unhappy/sad huge/enormouscorrect/right casual/informalprisoner/convict present/giftflourish/thrive donate/contributepedigree refers to animals; ancestry and genealogy primarily to humans, and lin-eage and descent refer to eitherhorse/steed/nagrain/showers/sprinkles/downpourConnotations, levels of formality, and dialectal distribution may differ:sofa, couch, chesterfield, davenportprivy, loo, w.c., bath/rest/washroom, toiletAntonymy.Among the types of antonymy are (1) binary antonymy. E.g. dead and