Don't you see that the whole aim of Newspeak is to narrow the range of thought? In the end we shall make thoughtcrime literally impossible, because there will be no words in which to express it.Thought control (cont'd)Every concept that can ever be needed, will be expressed by exactly one word, with its meaning rigidly defined and all its subsidiary meanings rubbed out and forgotten. … Already, … we're not far from that point. But the process will still be continuing long after you and I are dead. Every year fewer and fewer words, and the range of consciousness always a little smaller. … The Revolution will be complete when the language is perfect.How many words for snow are there in Eskimo?Franz Boas Just as English uses derived terms for a variety of forms of water (liquid, lake, river, brook, rain, dew, wave, foam) that might be formed by derivational morphology from a single root meaning 'water' in some other language, so Eskimo uses the apparently distinct roots aput 'snow on the ground', gana 'falling snow', piqsirpoq 'drifting snow', and qimuqsuq 'a snow drift'.(1911)Benjamin Lee WhorfWe have the same word for falling snow, snow on the ground, snow packed hard like ice, slushy snow, wind-driven flying snow--whatever the situation may be. To an Eskimo, this all-inclusive word would be almost unthinkable; he would say that falling snow, slushy snow, and so on, are sensuously and operationally different, different things to contend with; he uses different words for them and for other kinds of snow(1940)February 9, 1984 Editorial cites Whorf in reference to a "tribe" distinguishing "one hundred types of snow";http://www.mendosa.com/snow.html http://www.putlearningfirst.com/language/research/eskimo.html - Does one word for two different things prevent us from distinguishing them?- Do two words for things prevent us from thinking about them as similar?English Yupiksnow qanuk falling snowaniu snow on the groundqanikcaq- snow on the ground (derived from the root qanuk)Ancient Greek words for snow:neíphein = "to snow" niphás = "snowflake" khiôn = "snow (on the ground or falling)" Couldn’t Plato tell the difference?Linguistic relativity & GrammarHopi timeWhorf: the Hopi language has "no words, grammatical forms, constructions, or expressions that refer directly to what we call 'time'"That doesn't mean that they don't have time-related words! Hopi temporal expressions include: taavok - yesterday, qaavo - tomorrow, tooki - last night, Kyelmuya, Kyaamuya, Paamuya - 3 of the traditional lunar months um hisat tiitiwa? - when were you born?ason nu noosani - I will eat later.Whorf's claim:The Hopi don't refer to our concept of time: divided up into units, rather than continuing alongBUT: it's hard to asses what that would mean. Culturally, the Hopi have ways to refer to small units of time, and they have a sophisticated calendar (which divides up time in units)Linguistic relativity & GrammarAspectual differencesI went I was going I had goneI will have gone I will be going etc. In describing a picture like this, English speakers normally make use of such distinctions.English speakers say, for example:The boy fell out... and the dog was being chased by the bees. (5 years old)He's [the dog is] running through there, and he [the boy] fell off. (3 years, 8 months old)Spanish speakers make similar distinctions.Se cayó el niño y le perseguían al perro las avispas. (5 years old)"The boy fell and the wasps were chasing the dog."Se cayó... El perro está corriendo. (3 years, 4 months old)"The boy fell... The dog was running."In German, for example, the following verb forms are equivalent to more than one English verb aspect.fällt = "falls" or "is falling"ist gefallen = "fell" or "has fallen" or "was falling"rennt = "runs" or "is running"rannte = "ran" or "has run" or "was running"For the same picture, German speakers often resort to indirect strategies:Der ist vom Baum runtergefallen und der Hund läuft schnell weg. (5 years old)"He fell down from the tree and the dog runs away quicky"Er rannte schneller und immer schneller. (9 years old)"He ran faster and faster"Der Hund rennt rennt rennt. (adult)"The dog runs runs runs"Similarly in Hebrew:Hu nafal ve hakelev barax. (5 years old)"He fell and the dog ran away"Hayeled nafal... ve hakelev boreax. (5 years old)"The boy fell... and the dog runs away"Conclusions:All speakers are clearly aware of the aspect in the scenesBut they usually express only those aspectual distinctions that are built into the language. It's just a tendency, though:one-fourth of the time, English and Spanish speakers fail to use relevant distinctions in their languages; andthree-fourths of the time, German and Hebrew speakers go out of their way to indicate the aspect indirectly.Linguistic relativity & vocabulary Germanic spaceEnglish Germanon auf an auf = horizontal surface cup on a tablespider on a ceilingband-aid on shoulderan = vertical surface, or no clear orientation picture, poster on a wall band-aid on leg raindrops on a window fly on a window leaves on a twigEnglish Dutchon aan op aan = attached by a fixed point; prevented from manifesting tendency toward separationclothes on a line coathook on a wallpicture on a wall (hanging from a nail) apple on a twigicicles on a roof handle on a pandog on a leash pull-toy on a stringballoon on a stringop = supported from underneath (i.e. horizontally), or broadly on flattish surface, or living creature; seen as essentially stablecup on a table bandaid on a leg or shoulderposter on a wall (glued tight) sticker on a refrigeratorpaint on a door raindrops on a window fly on a window spider on a ceilingsnail on a wallBut:cultural and scientific traditions of Germany, Holland, and England are closely related and very similar. Whorf considers them all as part of "Standard Average European" culture.If these fundamental spatial distinctions don't indicate differences in thought, then it's doubtful that any more "exotic" distinctions indicate anything significant about thought processes. Speakers of German or Dutch have to attend to these issues of orientation or attachment when choosing a preposition, but speakers of all languages understand the underlying concepts.Color PerceptionEnglish Tarahumaragreen blue“grue” Experiment ISubjects were shown three close colors in the blue-green range, asked to choose the one that's most different from the other two. A B CResult: name