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GEOG 1000: FINAL EXAM
first crop from old to new world to be grown
|
potatoes |
grains
|
supply 1/2 of human caloric consumption
wheat from old world to new world and australia
|
maize
|
originated in meso-america, now grown worldwide
|
seasonal complimentary
|
between northern and southern hemispheres
|
two methods for increasing food production
|
1. expand cultivated area
2.raise productivity of existing cultivated areas
|
Green Revolution
|
biotechnology has helped raise the ability of countries to produce food through hybrid strains
the productivity of agricultural land continues to increase but at different rates around the world
|
capital inputs
|
associated with commercial forms of agriculture
productivity can be increased by this
|
subsistence agriculture
|
very extensive geographic form of agriculture
for direct consumption and use few capital inputs
|
nomadic herding
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a ranging but controlled movement of livestock
kicated ub dry and cold climates
|
swidden cultivation
|
aka shifting or slash and burn
a split of land is burned cultivated for years and left to return to natural state
primarily tropical climates
|
peasant agriculture
|
more intensive in use of land
sedentary-monsoon Asia and andes
large labor inputs
cash crops and direct consumption
RICE-double-cropping with wheat
|
commercial agriculture
|
not for direct consumption but for sal
complex in production and distribution
likely to use non-mechanical energy
|
types of commercial agriculture
|
livestock ranching,
plantation agriculture,
mediterranean agriculture,
prairie cereal agriculture
|
livestock ranching
|
meat is grown for urban markets
livestock forage over extensive area
|
plantation agriculture
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production of specialized cash crops intensively farmed and owned by outside investors
|
mediterraneanagriculture
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very intensive land use for high values specialty crops, high levels of irrigation
|
prairie cereal agriculture
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grains for human consumption
located in drier areas
|
pastoral people
|
herders
|
livestock production depends on...
|
related to climate but mostly depends on cultural preferences
|
hog production in islamic world
|
NONE
islam forbids eating of pork
|
Neo-Malthusians
|
view use of grain for livestock as a threat to the food supplies of the poorest people
1/3 of grain production goes to livestock
|
most efficient per unit of grain
|
chickens
|
factors determining the usefulness of a piece of land
|
land quality-site characteristics(global scale)
location-relative location (local and regional scale)
|
land rent
|
depends on land quality
|
marginal land
|
generates zero rent will not have any land use
|
fish
|
primary source of protein for many countries
most are harvested from the ocean
|
fisheries
|
where certain species are harvested
traditional fishing concentrated in developing countries of asia and oceania
commercial fishing in higher latitude seas
|
depleting the commons
|
overfishing and pollution of coastal waters is depleting fish resource
|
eco-zones of continental shelf
|
neritic zone-fishing grounds
estuarine zone
feshwater zone
|
aquaculture
|
fish farming
|
arable land
|
unevenly distributed over the world
Europe using all
asia and russia using most
|
land use theory
|
tells us that the new land brought into production is generally more marginal land
|
desertification
|
arable land turning into desert
|
high yield agriculture is capital intensive
|
farmers in developing countries do not have the income to afford for materials and energy
|
problems of commercial crops in poor countries
|
means less production of staple food crops
rising food prices
|
systems of land ownership
|
often maldistribution of land
residual of the countries colonial period
|
ejidos system
|
attempt to redistribute land
|
farm subsidies
|
in poor countries government generally subsidize the food needs of urban pop and keep farmers prices low-opposite is true in rich countries
|
reasons why farmers are subsidized
|
national security-less reliance on other countries
agricultural preservation-greenbelts around cities enhance quality of life
political clout-farming regions often have disproportionate political power
|
greatest challenge for irrigation
|
reduce loss of water due to evaporation
|
monoculture production
|
humans are reliant on too few crops putting out food supply at risk to new plant diseases
|
seed material being preserved in international seed vault
|
protects the genetic diversity of food
|
ultimate challenge for food production
|
sustainability
|
natural resource
|
anything created through a natural process that is beneficial to humans
|
proved reserve
|
the portion that has been identified that can be economically developed
|
3 elements of society
|
1. cultural values that influence the decision that the resource is desirable and acceptable to use
2. level of technology must be sufficient to enable use of the resource
3. economic system that determines whether a resource is affordable and accessible
|
externality
|
gain or loss to someone due to the actions of someone else
positive externality-reward
negative externality-cost (ex. pollution)
|
renewable resources
|
nature can regret as fast as the resources used by humans
|
potentially renewable
|
regenerate in a short time span but humans can destroy them
|
perpetual resources
|
sources that are virtually inexhaustable and indestructible (wind, waves...)`
|
nonrenewable resources
|
cannot regenerate within the time period they are consumed
|
mineral resources
|
derived from the lithosphere
|
exploitation of metallic mineral resources
|
1. exploration
2. extraction
3. concentration
4. smelting or refining
non-metallic are generally easier to obtain
|
smaller country with best distribution of mineral deposit
|
south africa
|
cartel
|
work best when the demand for the mineral is strong but not well when the demand is weak
controls output levels
|
landfill disposal
|
55% of solid waste trucked to sites and buried under earth in sanitary landfill
|
incineration
|
reduces bulk of material by 3/4 but the ash must be buried
can convert waste to energy
|
draw backs to incineration
|
release of toxic substances
concentrates waste in few locations
waste shipped large distances so increases spill risk and costs
|
recycling
|
reduces need for landfills and incinerators
|
barriers to recycling
|
waste separation
consumer resistance
lack of market
hidden costs
|
wood
|
major source of energy before 1890
|
fossil fuels
|
nonrenewable energy
shift came with shift in primary mode of transportation'
most important source of energy for the rest of the world
|
coal
|
fossil fuel
third after natural gas
after 1950 became major
most abundant but most harmful to environment
|
natural gas
|
main trade is from russia to europe
|
oil
|
not consumed as much in the regions that produce it
high global political importance
large proportion of international commodity trade
|
nuclear power
|
mainly generates electricity
mainly used in developed wealthy countries
|
problems with nuclear power
|
1. accidents
2. radioactive waste
3. high cost
|
biomass
|
one of most widely used renewable energy sources
plant material and animal waste
|
problem with bio-fuel
|
millions of acres of land must be devoted to growing for this purpose and not for food
|
hydroelectric power
|
second most commonly used source of renewable energy
produces electricity
|
geothermal
|
energy from the earth's heat below the surface- located in areas of recent volcanic activity
good for heating of generating electricity
|
wind
|
generating significant amounts of electricity
consume land, very visible, hazard to birds
|
solar
|
capture energy directly from the sun
photovoltaic cells-generate electricity directly from the sun's rays
needs least amount of geographic area to generate power
|
point pollution
|
enter the environment at specific site such as factories or waste treatment plants
|
nonpoint pollution
|
more diffuse and difficult to control such as exhaust or runoff
|
air pollution
|
3/4 from fossil fuels
|
factors affecting air pollution
|
climate, weather, wind patterns, topography
|
acid rain
|
sulfur and nitrogen oxides combine with water vapor
especially a problem in westerly wind belt of northern hemisphere
|
photochemicalsmog
|
nitrous oxides from exhausts
|
ozone depletion
|
chemical reactions with CFCs
especially problem in southern hemisphere
|
water pollution
|
major contributors: agriculture, industry, mining, municipalities and residences
reduction in dissolved oxygen caused by excessive amount of decomposing waste
|
thermal pollution
|
water has been heated and returned to the environment
disrupts food chain
|
city
|
concentrated nonagricultural settlement
|
hinterland
|
surround region of a city that the city also provides services to
|
conurbations
|
cities merge together to form larger urban areas
also referred to as megalopolis
|
megacities
|
have 10 million people or more
|
primate city
|
large city that dominates the entire national urban system in terms of size and political, social and intellectual control
found in developing countries
|
highest and lowest percentages of urbanization
|
highest: developed world and latin america
lowest: subsaharan africa and south asia
|
first cities
|
emerged in turkey and iraq around 4000BC
protected themselves with walled fortifications
division of labor
|
agglomeration
|
creates efficiencies in economic activities by greater specialization, spatially concentrated markets, or improved linkages between the economic activities
|
major sectors distinguished the relationship to the natural environment
|
1. primary activities
2.secondary activities
3.tertiary activities
|
primary activities
|
those that harvest or extract something from the earth
mining, agriculture, fishing
existed since paleolithic era and agricultural revolution
|
secondary activities
|
activities that add value to materials by transforming the material into something more useful
ore processing, construction, energy production, manufacturing
|
tertiary activities
|
provide services to primary and secondary sectors and goods and services to consumers
retail and wholesale trade, personal and professional services
|
quaternary activities
|
specialized services
information processing, research, management and administration
|
quinary activities
|
executive decision makers
|
shift in type of activity
|
as countries and economies grown and develop, employment and output shifts from most workers being employed by the primary sector towards the secondary and tertiary sectors
|
basic sector
|
the employed population of an urban area produces goods for or performs services for areas or people outside that area
meaning money flows into the urban center
|
nonbasic sector
|
people support themselves by supplying goods and services to residents of the urban center
does not generate new money
aka city-service sector
|
basic/nonbasicratio
|
roughly the same for cities of the same size
|
urban multiplier effect
|
implies how many jobs may be added or lost as the size of the basic sector changes
|
multiplier leakage
|
if certain services cannot be purchased locally, then they must be purchased outside the urban area
|
cities arose as...
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1. markets and centers for agricultural hinterlands
2. transportation crossroads and break-in-bulk locations
3. sites of extractive industries and local processing
|
gateway city
|
ports are one type
entrance to a new culture or society
|
urban hierarchy
|
ranking of cities based on their size and functional complexity
world cities-centers for international finance, production and marketing
|
rank-size rule
|
nth largest city will be 1/n size of the largest city
|
kinked curve
|
describes the primate city system relationship
|
central place theory
|
walter christaller
cities act as central places that are centers for the distribution of economic goods and services to a surrounding hinterland
|
starting assumptions behind central place theory
|
1. rural population evenly dispersed
2. consumers have similar demands and incomes
3.consumers will go to nearest store
4. towns will provide rural population with basic goods and services
5. each good/service will have its own threshold population that it needs to capture to stay in business
|
market boundary
|
between different stores
|
threshold range
|
distance that encloses an area that contains the minimum level of demand necessary for a store to stay in business
|
low order goods and services
|
goods and services with low thresholds
occur frequently over the landscape
|
high order goods and services
|
those with large thresholds
occur less frequently over the landscape
|
concentric zone model
|
based on the tenets of the von thunk model of agricultural land use
the bid rent functions that were steepest and highest at the center outbid other land uses for that most accessible location
characteristic of cities like chicago
|
concentric zone model we have:
|
1. CBD and fringe area of wholesaling, warehouses
2. slums and ethnic ghettos
3. older homes on small lots
4.middle income housing family residences
5. commuter zone of low density suburbs
|
multiple-nuclei model
|
based on the spread of urban development from several nodes of specialized function such as shopping malls or industrial and research parks
|
urban sprawl
|
occurred in a leap-frog manner as areas were developed in spatially discontinuous patches with a later interstitial fill in
edge cities located at perimeter of major metros
|
peripheral model
|
outer ring called exurban
|
office of management and budget
|
provides definitions of metropolitan areas
|
core based statistical areas
|
consist of count or similar entities associated with at least one core plus adjacent integrated counties
|
Metropolitan statistical areas
|
CBSAs associated with at least one urban area that has a population of at least 50,000
|
micropolitan statistical areas
|
CBSAs associated with at least one urban cluster that has a population of at least 10,000 but less than 50,000
|
combined statistical areas
|
consists of two or more adjacent CBSAs that have substantial employment interchange. The CBSAs that combine retain their separate identities
|
developments in the central city
|
declined as the decentralization of population and economic activity in the US has progressed
|
spatial mismatch hypothesis
|
used to partially explain the high levels of unemployment found in central cities.
entry-level jobs moved to suburbs and low income population in the central city
|
gentrified
|
shift in urban community lifestyle and increasing share of wealthier residents and businesses and increasing poverty values
young professionals have gentrified former decaying neighborhoods
|
sweat equity
|
an increased value in a property earned from labor toward upkeep or restoration
through this, immigrant neighborhoods are improving in quality
|
the west european city
|
a heritage of medieval origins, renaissance restructuring and later industrial period gave west europeans a difference look
|
east european city
|
similar to west except communist rule diverged it. central cultural district and residential areas are apartment block housing surrounded by wide streets
|
the latin american city
|
based on a heritage of the spanish colonial town with its central plaza dominated by government and religious structures
high income groups are located adjacent the spine. peripheral squatter settlements often have no urban services
|
southeast asian city
|
result of colonial function overlain over the indigenous one
port zone-result of colonial people
|
south asian city
|
1. colonial located on the coast with european enclave
2. more traditional city with mixed commercial and residential districts based on bazaar (market)
|
islamic urban form
|
1. traditional-mosque at heart, street markets, courtyard houses, fortress (kasbat)
2. modern western-style city
|
state
|
an independent political unit having sovereignty over a territory
|
nation
|
community of people with a common ancestry, culture and territory
|
nation-state
|
independent political unit having sovereignty over a territory
|
napoleonic code of laws
|
eroded the privileges of the aristocracy and strengthened the middle class
|
national self-determination
|
advanced by woodrow wilson after ww1
map of europe was redrawn
|
irredenta
|
neighboring states having the same cultural group
original boundaries of colonial administrative units had little congruence with existing national territories
|
colonial partition in Africa
|
very disruptive because many national groups were placed within the same state and individual groups were split between different states
superimposed boundaries have continuing effect
|
centripetal forces
|
forces that bind the state together
nationalism, unifying institutions, organization and administration, transportation
|
centrifugal forces
|
forces that split the state apart
subnationalism, regionalism
|
nationalism
|
centripetal force instilling feeling of allegiance
promoted through iconography such as, songs, documents, flags etc.
|
unifying institutions
|
centripal force instilling nationalism
public school, military, church, national media
|
organization and administration
|
public confidence in the effective organization and administration is important
are resources allocated fairly with equal access?
|
transportation (centripetal forces)
|
if well developed
shape does have impact on communication
|
subnationalism
|
can be disruptive if each group believes that its right to self-determination has not been recognized
yugoslavia and soviet union examples of this
|
ethnic cleansing
|
forcible removal of different ethnic groups
|
genocide
|
intentional elimination by death of an ethnic, racial or religious group
|
geographic characteristicsof states
|
size, shape, location
|
types of state shapes
|
compact-minimal time from one part to another
elongated-inefficient shape
prorupted- compact but with narrow extensions off it
perforated- and area with a hole in it
fragmented- usually islands
|
exclaves and enclaves
|
exclave-occurs when a part of one state is detached by the territory of another state
enclave-internal hole in perforated state
occur either through conquest or when a cultural group is surrounded by a larger different cultural group
|
frontier zones
|
before boundaries were formed, nations or empires were separated by these that were often sparsely populated and settlement patterns changed frequently
poorly defined
|
types of political boundaries
|
naturalor physical-rivers, mountains etc. (high potential for boundary disputes)
geometric or artificial-usually parallel lines or meridians (very precise)
|
antecedent boundaries
|
created before the area is highly populated
not very disruptive to commerce and populations
|
subsequent boundaries
|
created after the development of the cultural landscape
1. consequent-drawn to separate cultural groups
2. superimposed-imposed by external force (usually colonial ruler)
|
relic boundary
|
boundary line that no longer functions as a demarcation but still remains part of the cultural landscape
|
positional disputes
|
conflict over location, usually associated with physical boundaries
|
territorial disputes
|
conflict over ownership of a particular region
usually associated with subsequent boundaries
irredentist movement- formed for reunification of two territories
|
resource disputes
|
one state wants the resource wealth of another state or there is a dispute over how to share the wealth
|
unitary states
|
not over the boundary itself but what types of interaction can occur
immigration
|
federal states
|
opposite from unitary states
made of equal sub-units with strong regional government
response to regionalism
|
political fragmentation
|
geographic problem of special purpose districts at the local level
financially explosive and inefficient
|
gerrymandering
|
practice of drawing political boundaries to unfairly favor one political party over another
to either concentrate or disperse the vote for one party or the other
|
supranationalism
|
states increasingly willing to forego some sovereignty in exchange for cooperation from other states
|
territorial sea
|
12nm full sovereignty but allows innocent passage
|
contiguous sea
|
enforce customs and immigration
|
exclusive economic zone
|
manage natural resources-mining and fishing rights
|
high seas
|
open to all states
disappearance of high seas in many areas of the world and increased importance of many island groups
|
Gross domestic product (GDP)
|
total value of all goods and services produced within that country
china has the world's second largest economy
|
gross national income (GNI)
|
the GDP plus income received from foreign investments
|
gdp and gni
|
underestimate the value of subsistence economies
overestimate the dominance of cities
underestimate the economic importance of women
|
purchasing power parity
|
attempts to equate wealth based on ability to buy similar bundles of goods
more realistic measure of the standard of living
|
preindustrial society
|
most of the labor force is employed in the primary sector
|
industrial societies
|
a large share of gdp is produced by manufacturing and other secondary sector activities
|
postindustrial society
|
when more than 50% of jobs occur in the tertiary sectors
high income countries are dominated by the tertiary sector
|
economic development
|
involves the process of moving from an economy which is dominated by low valued added industries to those with more value added
|
manufacturing
|
major form of secondary activities arose with industrial revolution
processing-transforms products from primary sector
fabrication- transforms products from secondary sector
jobs are part of the basic sector
|
phases of manufacturing
|
assembly-gathering raw material or other inputs at a plant
production-transforming these materials into a finished or semi finished product of higher value
distribution-marketing and shipping products to their markets
|
economies of scale
|
interdependencies among all economic activities as commodities flow from one sector to another
linkages-contacts and connections which support the movement of commodities
a cost savings due to external arrangements
|
urbanization economies
|
derive from close proximity of many types of industry
cost advantages:
1. large city labor market
2. quality of services
|
internal economies of scale
|
form of cost savings in manufacturing associated with scale of production
reduction in average production costs
|
weber model
|
focuses on the role of transportation in the decision process
production would occur at the site that minimized total transport costs
|
material-oriented manufacturing
|
located close to the source of raw materials because
1. material is heavy or bulky
2.material is perishible
3.significant weight loss in manufacturing
|
market-oriented manufacturing
|
located close to the market because
1. output it heavy
2.output is perishible
3.significant weight gain in manufacturing
|
terminal charges
|
cost of loading and unloading materials
|
line haul costs
|
cost of movement
curvilinear with respect to distance
|
break-in-bulk point
|
where one must change modes of transportation during shipment
|
product life cycle
|
initial-engineering and knowledge
growth-management skills
mature-labor inputs have been deskilled
|
political economy
|
every country defines a set of principles for organizing its economy
maintain a common standard of living throughout to ensure disparities in wealth between regions do not occur
|
africa's railroad infrastructure
|
developed to extract materials from the interior and transport to the coast which limits economic development in african countries
|
governments restrict imports by:
|
tariffs-increasing the price of imports
quotas-sets max limit on imports
safety, health and other regulations
|
comparative advantage
|
concerned with relative advantages in the resource endowment of regions and countries
can include the labor skills and technology levels of a country
disadvantage-only develop industries linked to current comparative advantage and begin importing other products
|
import-substitution
|
protects infant industries through trade tariffs and quotas
|
export processing zones
|
created in hopes that they will attract foreign investment because of tax advantages and no government barriers to imports and exports
china established these in its coastal provinces and initially focused on low value added manufacturing
|
advantages to EOI
|
1. improve economies of scale by expanding market for higher output levels
2. expansion of industry is not limited by expansion of internal markets for industrial goods
3. creation of economies of network
|
foreign direct investments (FDI)
|
they own and operate facilities around the world
characteristics:
-most FDI is between rich countries
-in developing countries it is most strong in latin america, east asia and southeast asia
-patterns of invents tend to be clustered within a neighboring region
|
intergovernmentalism
|
states must agree to the policies of the agreements
|
global pollution
|
zone of pollution creation shifting from rich to poor countries and industries are relocating
|
1987 Montreal protocol
|
limited CFC production and set guidelines for phasing out its use
|
1997 Kyoto Protocol
|
industrialized companies agreed to reduce CO2 emissions
less industrialized countries not required to because of negative impact it would have on economies
|
The UN
|
power resides in its 15-member security council
troops used in peacekeeping and enforcement
|
free-trade association
|
free trade among members
no restrictions with non members
|
customs union
|
free trade among members
common barriers to trade with nonmembers
|
common market
|
customs union requirement
free factor movement among members
|
economic union
|
common market requirement
coordination of economic policy
|
which major grain is most spatially concentrated in the location of its production?
|
rice |
which major grain is most spatially concentrated in the location of its production?
|
rice
|
the climatic geography of livestock ranching is
|
midlatitude steppe
|
the climatic geography of livestock ranching is
|
midlatitude steppe
|
which region of the world has the least proportion of uncultivated land that could still be brought into production
|
africa
|
which region of the world has the least proportion of uncultivated land that could still be brought into production
|
africa
|
which fossil fuel is the most environmentally harmful and expensive to transport?
|
coal
|
which fossil fuel is the most environmentally harmful and expensive to transport?
|
coal
|
solar energy is an example of a potentially renewable resource
|
false
|
true or false: industrial waste is the main source of water pollution
|
false |
which urban land use model is closely associated with the walking city?
|
concentric zonal
|
true or false?
the distance that encloses an area that contains the minimum level of demand necessary for a store to remain in business is known as the outer range
|
true |
true or false?
the sector in an urban area that is comprised of those activities that supply goods and services to residents and businesses of the urban center is the non-basic sector
|
true |
the fact that illinois has over 6000 local government units ranging from counties to special purpose sewer districts is an example of:
|
political fragmentation
|
true or false:
unitary governments are a response to regionalism in which more self-rule is passed from the central government to sub regions
|
false |
true or false:
unitary governments are a response to regionalism in which more self-rule is passed from the central government to sub regions
|
false
|
true or false
although ships have been granted innocent passage through territorial waters, plans have never been granted innocent passage over countries
|
true
|
the most likely type of employment for workers in developing countries is:
|
primary sector
|
true or false?
localization economies is the co-location of industry to take advantage of external economies of scale through linkages
|
true |
true or false?
curvilinear transport costs favor location at either a raw material or market site and no intermediate locations
|
true
|
which type of regional economic integration allows free trade among member state and regulate trade with non-member states but nothing more?
|
customs union
|
true or false?
The 1997 Kyoto Protocol limited CFC production and set
guidelines for the phasing out of its use.
|
false
|
true or false?
Most multilateral agreements are among states with a regional proximity to one another.
|
true |