Front Back
first crop from old to new world to be grown
potatoes
grains
supply 1/2 of human caloric consumption wheat from old world to new world and australia
maize
originated in meso-america, now grown worldwide
seasonal complimentary
between northern and southern hemispheres
two methods for increasing food production
1. expand cultivated area 2.raise productivity of existing cultivated areas
Green Revolution
biotechnology has helped raise the ability of countries to produce food through hybrid strains the productivity of agricultural land continues to increase but at different rates around the world
capital inputs
associated with commercial forms of agriculture productivity can be increased by this
subsistence agriculture
very extensive geographic form of agriculture for direct consumption and use few capital inputs
nomadic herding
a ranging but controlled movement of livestock kicated ub dry and cold climates
swidden cultivation
aka shifting or slash and burn a split of land is burned cultivated for years and left to return to natural state primarily tropical climates
peasant agriculture
more intensive in use of land sedentary-monsoon Asia and andes large labor inputs cash crops and direct consumption RICE-double-cropping with wheat
commercial agriculture
not for direct consumption but for sal complex in production and distribution likely to use non-mechanical energy
types of commercial agriculture
livestock ranching, plantation agriculture, mediterranean agriculture, prairie cereal agriculture
livestock ranching
meat is grown for urban markets livestock forage over extensive area
plantation agriculture
production of specialized cash crops intensively farmed and owned by outside investors
mediterraneanagriculture
very intensive land use for high values specialty crops, high levels of irrigation
prairie cereal agriculture
grains for human consumption located in drier areas
pastoral people
herders
livestock production depends on...
related to climate but mostly depends on cultural preferences
hog production in islamic world
NONE islam forbids eating of pork
Neo-Malthusians
view use of grain for livestock as a threat to the food supplies of the poorest people 1/3 of grain production goes to livestock
most efficient per unit of grain
chickens
factors determining the usefulness of a piece of land
land quality-site characteristics(global scale) location-relative location (local and regional scale)
land rent
depends on land quality
marginal land
generates zero rent will not have any land use
fish
primary source of protein for many countries most are harvested from the ocean
fisheries
where certain species are harvested traditional fishing concentrated in developing countries of asia and oceania commercial fishing in higher latitude seas
depleting the commons
overfishing and pollution of coastal waters is depleting fish resource
eco-zones of continental shelf
neritic zone-fishing grounds estuarine zone feshwater zone
aquaculture
fish farming
arable land
unevenly distributed over the world Europe using all asia and russia using most
land use theory
tells us that the new land brought into production is generally more marginal land
desertification
arable land turning into desert
high yield agriculture is capital intensive
farmers in developing countries do not have the income to afford for materials and energy
problems of commercial crops in poor countries
means less production of staple food crops rising food prices
systems of land ownership
often maldistribution of land residual of the countries colonial period
ejidos system
attempt to redistribute land
farm subsidies
in poor countries government generally subsidize the food needs of urban pop and keep farmers prices low-opposite is true in rich countries
reasons why farmers are subsidized
national security-less reliance on other countries agricultural preservation-greenbelts around cities enhance quality of life political clout-farming regions often have disproportionate political power
greatest challenge for irrigation
reduce loss of water due to evaporation
monoculture production
humans are reliant on too few crops putting out food supply at risk to new plant diseases
seed material being preserved in international seed vault
protects the genetic diversity of food
ultimate challenge for food production
sustainability
natural resource
anything created through a natural process that is beneficial to humans
proved reserve
the portion that has been identified that can be economically developed
3 elements of society
1. cultural values that influence the decision that the resource is desirable and acceptable to use 2. level of technology must be sufficient to enable use of the resource 3. economic system that determines whether a resource is affordable and accessible
externality
gain or loss to someone due to the actions of someone else positive externality-reward negative externality-cost (ex. pollution)
renewable resources
nature can regret as fast as the resources used by humans
potentially renewable
regenerate in a short time span but humans can destroy them
perpetual resources
sources that are virtually inexhaustable and indestructible (wind, waves...)`
nonrenewable resources
cannot regenerate within the time period they are consumed
mineral resources
derived from the lithosphere
exploitation of metallic mineral resources
1. exploration 2. extraction 3. concentration 4. smelting or refining non-metallic are generally easier to obtain
smaller country with best distribution of mineral deposit
south africa
cartel
work best when the demand for the mineral is strong but not well when the demand is weak controls output levels
landfill disposal
55% of solid waste trucked to sites and buried under earth in sanitary landfill
incineration
reduces bulk of material by 3/4 but the ash must be buried can convert waste to energy
draw backs to incineration
release of toxic substances concentrates waste in few locations waste shipped large distances so increases spill risk and costs
recycling
reduces need for landfills and incinerators
barriers to recycling
waste separation consumer resistance lack of market hidden costs
wood
major source of energy before 1890
fossil fuels
nonrenewable energy shift came with shift in primary mode of transportation' most important source of energy for the rest of the world
coal
fossil fuel third after natural gas after 1950 became major most abundant but most harmful to environment
natural gas
main trade is from russia to europe
oil
not consumed as much in the regions that produce it high global political importance large proportion of international commodity trade
nuclear power
mainly generates electricity mainly used in developed wealthy countries
problems with nuclear power
1. accidents 2. radioactive waste 3. high cost
biomass
one of most widely used renewable energy sources plant material and animal waste
problem with bio-fuel
millions of acres of land must be devoted to growing for this purpose and not for food
hydroelectric power
second most commonly used source of renewable energy produces electricity
geothermal
energy from the earth's heat below the surface- located in areas of recent volcanic activity good for heating of generating electricity
wind
generating significant amounts of electricity consume land, very visible, hazard to birds
solar
capture energy directly from the sun photovoltaic cells-generate electricity directly from the sun's rays needs least amount of geographic area to generate power
point pollution
enter the environment at specific site such as factories or waste treatment plants
nonpoint pollution
more diffuse and difficult to control such as exhaust or runoff
air pollution
3/4 from fossil fuels
factors affecting air pollution
climate, weather, wind patterns, topography
acid rain
sulfur and nitrogen oxides combine with water vapor especially a problem in westerly wind belt of northern hemisphere
photochemicalsmog
nitrous oxides from exhausts
ozone depletion
chemical reactions with CFCs especially problem in southern hemisphere
water pollution
major contributors: agriculture, industry, mining, municipalities and residences reduction in dissolved oxygen caused by excessive amount of decomposing waste
thermal pollution
water has been heated and returned to the environment disrupts food chain
city
concentrated nonagricultural settlement
hinterland
surround region of a city that the city also provides services to
conurbations
cities merge together to form larger urban areas also referred to as megalopolis
megacities
have 10 million people or more
primate city
large city that dominates the entire national urban system in terms of size and political, social and intellectual control found in developing countries
highest and lowest percentages of urbanization
highest: developed world and latin america lowest: subsaharan africa and south asia
first cities
emerged in turkey and iraq around 4000BC protected themselves with walled fortifications division of labor
agglomeration
creates efficiencies in economic activities by greater specialization, spatially concentrated markets, or improved linkages between the economic activities
major sectors distinguished the relationship to the natural environment
1. primary activities 2.secondary activities 3.tertiary activities
primary activities
those that harvest or extract something from the earth mining, agriculture, fishing existed since paleolithic era and agricultural revolution
secondary activities
activities that add value to materials by transforming the material into something more useful ore processing, construction, energy production, manufacturing
tertiary activities
provide services to primary and secondary sectors and goods and services to consumers retail and wholesale trade, personal and professional services
quaternary activities
specialized services information processing, research, management and administration
quinary activities
executive decision makers
shift in type of activity
as countries and economies grown and develop, employment and output shifts from most workers being employed by the primary sector towards the secondary and tertiary sectors
basic sector
the employed population of an urban area produces goods for or performs services for areas or people outside that area meaning money flows into the urban center
nonbasic sector
people support themselves by supplying goods and services to residents of the urban center does not generate new money aka city-service sector
basic/nonbasicratio
roughly the same for cities of the same size
urban multiplier effect
implies how many jobs may be added or lost as the size of the basic sector changes
multiplier leakage
if certain services cannot be purchased locally, then they must be purchased outside the urban area
cities arose as...
1. markets and centers for agricultural hinterlands 2. transportation crossroads and break-in-bulk locations 3. sites of extractive industries and local processing
gateway city
ports are one type entrance to a new culture or society
urban hierarchy
ranking of cities based on their size and functional complexity world cities-centers for international finance, production and marketing
rank-size rule
nth largest city will be 1/n size of the largest city
kinked curve
describes the primate city system relationship
central place theory
walter christaller cities act as central places that are centers for the distribution of economic goods and services to a surrounding hinterland
starting assumptions behind central place theory
1. rural population evenly dispersed 2. consumers have similar demands and incomes 3.consumers will go to nearest store 4. towns will provide rural population with basic goods and services 5. each good/service will have its own threshold population that it needs to capture to stay in …
market boundary
between different stores
threshold range
distance that encloses an area that contains the minimum level of demand necessary for a store to stay in business
low order goods and services
goods and services with low thresholds occur frequently over the landscape
high order goods and services
those with large thresholds occur less frequently over the landscape
concentric zone model
based on the tenets of the von thunk model of agricultural land use the bid rent functions that were steepest and highest at the center outbid other land uses for that most accessible location characteristic of cities like chicago
concentric zone model we have:
1. CBD and fringe area of wholesaling, warehouses 2. slums and ethnic ghettos 3. older homes on small lots 4.middle income housing family residences 5. commuter zone of low density suburbs
multiple-nuclei model
based on the spread of urban development from several nodes of specialized function such as shopping malls or industrial and research parks
urban sprawl
occurred in a leap-frog manner as areas were developed in spatially discontinuous patches with a later interstitial fill in edge cities located at perimeter of major metros
peripheral model
outer ring called exurban
office of management and budget
provides definitions of metropolitan areas
core based statistical areas
consist of count or similar entities associated with at least one core plus adjacent integrated counties
Metropolitan statistical areas
CBSAs associated with at least one urban area that has a population of at least 50,000
micropolitan statistical areas
CBSAs associated with at least one urban cluster that has a population of at least 10,000 but less than 50,000
combined statistical areas
consists of two or more adjacent CBSAs that have substantial employment interchange. The CBSAs that combine retain their separate identities
developments in the central city
declined as the decentralization of population and economic activity in the US has progressed
spatial mismatch hypothesis
used to partially explain the high levels of unemployment found in central cities. entry-level jobs moved to suburbs and low income population in the central city
gentrified
shift in urban community lifestyle and increasing share of wealthier residents and businesses and increasing poverty values young professionals have gentrified former decaying neighborhoods
sweat equity
an increased value in a property earned from labor toward upkeep or restoration through this, immigrant neighborhoods are improving in quality
the west european city
a heritage of medieval origins, renaissance restructuring and later industrial period gave west europeans a difference look
east european city
similar to west except communist rule diverged it. central cultural district and residential areas are apartment block housing surrounded by wide streets
the latin american city
based on a heritage of the spanish colonial town with its central plaza dominated by government and religious structures high income groups are located adjacent the spine. peripheral squatter settlements often have no urban services
southeast asian city
result of colonial function overlain over the indigenous one port zone-result of colonial people
south asian city
1. colonial located on the coast with european enclave 2. more traditional city with mixed commercial and residential districts based on bazaar (market)
islamic urban form
1. traditional-mosque at heart, street markets, courtyard houses, fortress (kasbat) 2. modern western-style city
state
an independent political unit having sovereignty over a territory
nation
community of people with a common ancestry, culture and territory
nation-state
independent political unit having sovereignty over a territory
napoleonic code of laws
eroded the privileges of the aristocracy and strengthened the middle class
national self-determination
advanced by woodrow wilson after ww1 map of europe was redrawn
irredenta
neighboring states having the same cultural group original boundaries of colonial administrative units had little congruence with existing national territories
colonial partition in Africa
very disruptive because many national groups were placed within the same state and individual groups were split between different states superimposed boundaries have continuing effect
centripetal forces
forces that bind the state together nationalism, unifying institutions, organization and administration, transportation
centrifugal forces
forces that split the state apart subnationalism, regionalism
nationalism
centripetal force instilling feeling of allegiance promoted through iconography such as, songs, documents, flags etc.
unifying institutions
centripal force instilling nationalism public school, military, church, national media
organization and administration
public confidence in the effective organization and administration is important are resources allocated fairly with equal access?
transportation (centripetal forces)
if well developed shape does have impact on communication
subnationalism
can be disruptive if each group believes that its right to self-determination has not been recognized yugoslavia and soviet union examples of this
ethnic cleansing
forcible removal of different ethnic groups
genocide
intentional elimination by death of an ethnic, racial or religious group
geographic characteristicsof states
size, shape, location
types of state shapes
compact-minimal time from one part to another elongated-inefficient shape prorupted- compact but with narrow extensions off it perforated- and area with a hole in it fragmented- usually islands
exclaves and enclaves
exclave-occurs when a part of one state is detached by the territory of another state enclave-internal hole in perforated state occur either through conquest or when a cultural group is surrounded by a larger different cultural group
frontier zones
before boundaries were formed, nations or empires were separated by these that were often sparsely populated and settlement patterns changed frequently poorly defined
types of political boundaries
naturalor physical-rivers, mountains etc. (high potential for boundary disputes) geometric or artificial-usually parallel lines or meridians (very precise)
antecedent boundaries
created before the area is highly populated not very disruptive to commerce and populations
subsequent boundaries
created after the development of the cultural landscape 1. consequent-drawn to separate cultural groups 2. superimposed-imposed by external force (usually colonial ruler)
relic boundary
boundary line that no longer functions as a demarcation but still remains part of the cultural landscape
positional disputes
conflict over location, usually associated with physical boundaries
territorial disputes
conflict over ownership of a particular region usually associated with subsequent boundaries irredentist movement- formed for reunification of two territories
resource disputes
one state wants the resource wealth of another state or there is a dispute over how to share the wealth
unitary states
not over the boundary itself but what types of interaction can occur immigration
federal states
opposite from unitary states made of equal sub-units with strong regional government response to regionalism
political fragmentation
geographic problem of special purpose districts at the local level financially explosive and inefficient
gerrymandering
practice of drawing political boundaries to unfairly favor one political party over another to either concentrate or disperse the vote for one party or the other
supranationalism
states increasingly willing to forego some sovereignty in exchange for cooperation from other states
territorial sea
12nm full sovereignty but allows innocent passage
contiguous sea
enforce customs and immigration
exclusive economic zone
manage natural resources-mining and fishing rights
high seas
open to all states disappearance of high seas in many areas of the world and increased importance of many island groups
Gross domestic product (GDP)
total value of all goods and services produced within that country china has the world's second largest economy
gross national income (GNI)
the GDP plus income received from foreign investments
gdp and gni
underestimate the value of subsistence economies overestimate the dominance of cities underestimate the economic importance of women
purchasing power parity
attempts to equate wealth based on ability to buy similar bundles of goods more realistic measure of the standard of living
preindustrial society
most of the labor force is employed in the primary sector
industrial societies
a large share of gdp is produced by manufacturing and other secondary sector activities
postindustrial society
when more than 50% of jobs occur in the tertiary sectors high income countries are dominated by the tertiary sector
economic development
involves the process of moving from an economy which is dominated by low valued added industries to those with more value added
manufacturing
major form of secondary activities arose with industrial revolution processing-transforms products from primary sector fabrication- transforms products from secondary sector jobs are part of the basic sector
phases of manufacturing
assembly-gathering raw material or other inputs at a plant production-transforming these materials into a finished or semi finished product of higher value distribution-marketing and shipping products to their markets
economies of scale
interdependencies among all economic activities as commodities flow from one sector to another linkages-contacts and connections which support the movement of commodities a cost savings due to external arrangements
urbanization economies
derive from close proximity of many types of industry cost advantages: 1. large city labor market 2. quality of services
internal economies of scale
form of cost savings in manufacturing associated with scale of production reduction in average production costs
weber model
focuses on the role of transportation in the decision process production would occur at the site that minimized total transport costs
material-oriented manufacturing
located close to the source of raw materials because 1. material is heavy or bulky 2.material is perishible 3.significant weight loss in manufacturing
market-oriented manufacturing
located close to the market because 1. output it heavy 2.output is perishible 3.significant weight gain in manufacturing
terminal charges
cost of loading and unloading materials
line haul costs
cost of movement curvilinear with respect to distance
break-in-bulk point
where one must change modes of transportation during shipment
product life cycle
initial-engineering and knowledge growth-management skills mature-labor inputs have been deskilled
political economy
every country defines a set of principles for organizing its economy maintain a common standard of living throughout to ensure disparities in wealth between regions do not occur
africa's railroad infrastructure
developed to extract materials from the interior and transport to the coast which limits economic development in african countries
governments restrict imports by:
tariffs-increasing the price of imports quotas-sets max limit on imports safety, health and other regulations
comparative advantage
concerned with relative advantages in the resource endowment of regions and countries can include the labor skills and technology levels of a country disadvantage-only develop industries linked to current comparative advantage and begin importing other products
import-substitution
protects infant industries through trade tariffs and quotas
export processing zones
created in hopes that they will attract foreign investment because of tax advantages and no government barriers to imports and exports china established these in its coastal provinces and initially focused on low value added manufacturing
advantages to EOI
1. improve economies of scale by expanding market for higher output levels 2. expansion of industry is not limited by expansion of internal markets for industrial goods 3. creation of economies of network
foreign direct investments (FDI)
they own and operate facilities around the world characteristics: -most FDI is between rich countries -in developing countries it is most strong in latin america, east asia and southeast asia -patterns of invents tend to be clustered within a neighboring region
intergovernmentalism
states must agree to the policies of the agreements
global pollution
zone of pollution creation shifting from rich to poor countries and industries are relocating
1987 Montreal protocol
limited CFC production and set guidelines for phasing out its use
1997 Kyoto Protocol
industrialized companies agreed to reduce CO2 emissions less industrialized countries not required to because of negative impact it would have on economies
The UN
power resides in its 15-member security council troops used in peacekeeping and enforcement
free-trade association
free trade among members no restrictions with non members
customs union
free trade among members common barriers to trade with nonmembers
common market
customs union requirement free factor movement among members
economic union
common market requirement coordination of economic policy
which major grain is most spatially concentrated in the location of its production?
rice
which major grain is most spatially concentrated in the location of its production?
rice
the climatic geography of livestock ranching is
midlatitude steppe
the climatic geography of livestock ranching is
midlatitude steppe
which region of the world has the least proportion of uncultivated land that could still be brought into production
africa
which region of the world has the least proportion of uncultivated land that could still be brought into production
africa
which fossil fuel is the most environmentally harmful and expensive to transport?
coal
which fossil fuel is the most environmentally harmful and expensive to transport?
coal
solar energy is an example of a potentially renewable resource
false
true or false: industrial waste is the main source of water pollution
false
which urban land use model is closely associated with the walking city?
concentric zonal
true or false? the distance that encloses an area that contains the minimum level of demand necessary for a store to remain in business is known as the outer range
true
true or false? the sector in an urban area that is comprised of those activities that supply goods and services to residents and businesses of the urban center is the non-basic sector
true
the fact that illinois has over 6000 local government units ranging from counties to special purpose sewer districts is an example of:
political fragmentation
true or false: unitary governments are a response to regionalism in which more self-rule is passed from the central government to sub regions
false
true or false: unitary governments are a response to regionalism in which more self-rule is passed from the central government to sub regions
false
true or false although ships have been granted innocent passage through territorial waters, plans have never been granted innocent passage over countries
true
the most likely type of employment for workers in developing countries is:
primary sector
true or false? localization economies is the co-location of industry to take advantage of external economies of scale through linkages
true
true or false? curvilinear transport costs favor location at either a raw material or market site and no intermediate locations
true
which type of regional economic integration allows free trade among member state and regulate trade with non-member states but nothing more?
customs union
true or false? The 1997 Kyoto Protocol limited CFC production and set guidelines for the phasing out of its use.
false
true or false? Most multilateral agreements are among states with a regional proximity to one another.
true

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