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BY 124: EXAM 3
Suspension Feeders |
Aquatic animals who sift small food particles from the water.
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Substrate Feeders |
Animals that live in or on their food source, eating their way through the food.
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Fluid Feeders |
Suck nutrient rich fluid from a living host.
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Bulk Feeders |
Eat relatively large pieces of food.
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Undernourishment |
If the diet of an animal is chronically deficient in calories.
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Overnourishment |
A diet that is chronically excessive in calories.
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Insulin |
Enhances the transport of glucose into the body cells and stimulates the liver and muscle cells to store glucose as glycogen, causing a reduction in glucose level. Also suppresses appetite by acting on the brain.
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Glucagon |
Promotes the breakdown of glycogen in the liver and the release of glucose into the blood, increasing blood glucose level.
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Leptin |
Produced by adipose tissue. Suppresses appetite as its level increases.
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PYY |
Secreted by the small intestine after meals and acts as an appetite suppressant that counters the appetite stimulant ghrelin.
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Ghrelin |
Secreted by the stomach. Triggers the feeling of hunger as mealtimes approach.
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Essential Nutrients |
Materials that must be obtained in preassembled form because the animal's cells cannot make them from any raw material.
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Malnourishment |
An animal whose diet is missing one or more essential nutrients.
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Essential Amino Acids |
Must be obtained from food in preassembled form.
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Essential Fatty Acids |
Fatty acids that animals cannot make.
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Vitamins |
Organic molecules required in the diet in amounts that are small compared with relatively large required quantities of essential amino acids and fatty acids.
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Minerals |
Simple inorganic nutrients required in small amounts.
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Water Soluble Vitamins |
Include the B complex and C (required for the production of connective tissue).
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Fat Soluble Vitamins |
Include A (eye pigmentation), D (calcium absorption and bone formation), E, and K (blood clotting).
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Ingestion |
The first stage of food processing. The act of eating.
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Digestion |
The processing of breaking food down into molecules small enough for the body to absorb.
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Enzymatic Hydrolysis |
Digestion breaks bonds with the addition of water.
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Absorption |
Animal cells take up small molecules such as amino acids and simple sugars from the digestive compartment.
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Elimination |
Undigested material passes out of the digestive compartment.
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Intracellular Digestion |
When food vacuoles in the cell break down food without digesting the cell's own cytoplasm.
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Extracellular Digestion |
Breakdown of food outside cells.
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Gastrovascular Cavity |
Functions in both digestion and distribution of nutrients throughout the body in some animals.
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Alimentary Canal |
Animals with a digestive tube that extends between two openings, a mouth and an anus.
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Peristalsis |
Rhythmic waves of contraction by smooth muscles in the wall of the canal that pushes the food along the tract.
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Sphincters |
Ringlike valves between junctions between specialized segments of the digestive tube.
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Accessory Glands |
Salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder
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Oral Cavity |
Triggers a nervous reflex that causes the salivary glands to deliver saliva through ducts to the oral cavity.
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Salivary Amylase |
An enzyme that hydrolyzes starch and glycogen in the oral cavity.
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Bolus |
The shape of the food after manipulated by the tongue.
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Pharynx |
A junction that opens to both the esophagus and trachea.
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Epiglottis |
Cartilaginous flap that blocks the glottis during swallowing.
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Esophagus |
Conducts the food from the pharynx down to the stomach via peristalsis.
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Stomach |
Stores food and performs preliminary steps of digestion.
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Gastric Juice |
Secreted by the epithelial lining deep pits in the stomach wall. Has a pH of 2.
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Pepsin |
Present in gastric juice. Breaks peptide bonds to specific amino acids, cleaving proteins into smaller polypeptides.
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Pepsinogen |
Secreted by chief cells to secrete pepsin.
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Parietal Cells |
Secrete Hydrochloric Acid in the stomach.
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Acid Chyme |
As a result of enzyme action and churning in the stomach, the swallowed meal becomes a nutrient-rich broth known as _____.
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Pyloric Sphincter |
Helps regulate the passage of chyme into the intestine.
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Small Intestine |
Longest section of the alimentary canal in humans where most enzymatic hydrolysis of food occurs.
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Duodenum |
Acid chyme from the stomach mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and gland cells.
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Bile |
Produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder until needed. Emulsifies fats.
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Mucus Cells |
Secrete mucus to lubricate and protect cells lining the stomach.
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Gastric Gland |
Have three types of cells that secrete different components of gastric juice: mucus cells, chief cells, and parietal cells.
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Gastrin |
Recirculates via the bloodstream back to the stomach where it stimulates the the production of gastric juices.
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Secretin |
Secreted by the duodenum. Stimulates the pancreas to release sodium bicarbonate which neutralizes acid chyme from the stomach.
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Enterogastrone |
Secreted by the duodenum. Inhibits peristalsis and acid secretion by the stomach, slowing digestion.
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Cholecystokinin (CCK) |
Stimulates the release of digestion enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the gallbladder.
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Chylomicrons |
Small globules which are mostly transported out of epithelial cells and into lacteals.
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Lacteal |
A net of microscopic blood vessels and a small vessel of lymphatic system.
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Hepatic Portal Vein |
Capillaries and veins that carry nutrient-rich blood away from the villi to the liver.
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Colon |
Recovers water that has entered the alimentary as the solvent of the various digestive juices.
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Cecum |
Arm in the T junction of the colon.
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Appendix |
Fingerlike extension from the cecum.
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Feces |
Wastes of the digestive tract.
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Rectum |
The terminal portion of the colon where feces are stores until they are eliminated.
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Open Circularatory System |
Blood bathes organs directly.
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Blood Pressure |
Motive force for fluid movement in the circularatory system.
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Hemolymph |
General body fluid in an open circularatory system.
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Sinuses |
Spaces surrounding the organs.
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Closed Circularatory System |
Blood is confined to vessels.
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Atria |
Receive blood returning to the heart.
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Ventricles |
Chambers that pump blood out of the heart.
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Artery |
Carries blood away from the heart to organs throughout the body.
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Arterioles |
Small vessels that convey blood to the capillaries.
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Capillary Beds |
Microscopic vessels where dissolved gases are exchanged by diffusion between blood and interstitial fluid around tissue cells.
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Veins |
Return blood to the heart.
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Gill Circulation |
In fishes, blood pumped from the ventricles travels first to the gills where it picks up oxygen and disposes of carbon dioxide.
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Systemic Circulation (fishes) |
In fishes, Gill capillaries converge into a vessel that carries oxygen rich blood to capillary beds throughout all parts of the body.
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Pulmocutaneous Circuit |
In amphibians, this leads to capillaries in the gas exchange organs where blood picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide before returning to the atrium.
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Double Circulation |
Provides a vigorous flow of blood to the brain, muscles, and other organs because the blood is pumped a second time after it loses pressure in the capillary beds of the lungs or skin.
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Pulmonary Circuit |
In reptiles, the branch of the circulatory system that supplies the lungs.
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Cardiac Cycle |
One complete sequence of pumping and filling
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Systole |
Contraction phase
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Diastole |
Relaxation phase
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Cardiac Output |
The volume of blood per minute that the left ventricle pumps into the systemic circuit.
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Heart Rate |
Rate of contraction
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Stroke Volume |
The amount of blood pumped by the left ventricle in each contraction.
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Valve |
Flaps of connective tissue that prevent backflow and keep blood moving in the correct direction.
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AV Valve |
Valves between the atrium and ventricle.
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Semilunar Valve |
Located at two exits of the heart: before aorta and pulmonary artery.
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Pulse |
Rhythmic stretching of arteries caused by the pressure of blood driven by the powerful contractions of the ventricles.
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Heart Murmur |
Defect in a valve when a stream of blood squirts backwards through a valve.
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SA Node (Pacemaker) |
Sets the rate and timing at which all cardiac muscle cells contract.
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Myogenic Heart |
Since the human pacemeaker is made of specialized muscle tissues and located within the heart itself, the vertebrate is made of muscle tissues called the ______.
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Neurogenic Heart |
In arthropods, pacemakers arise in motor nerves from the outside, and arrangement called a _______.
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AV Node |
Signals here are delayed for 0.1 seconds before spreading to the walls of ventricles.
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Electrocardiogram |
Impulses that travel through cardiac muscle during the heart cycle produce electrical currents that are conducted through body fluids through the skin.
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Endothelum |
A single layer of flattened cells that provide a smooth surface that minimizes resistance to blood flow.
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Peripheral Resistance |
Impedance of blood flow by the arterioles.
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Lymphatic System |
Where lost fluid and proteins return to the blood. Helps defend against infection and maintains the volume and protein concentration in the blood.
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Lymph |
Fluid in the lymphatic system
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Lymph Nodes |
Organs that play a role in the body's defense.
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Plasma |
Liquid matrix that suspends cells in the blood. 90% water.
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Erythrocytes |
Transport oxygen in the blood.
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Hemoglobin |
The iron containing protein that transports oxygen.
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Leukocytes |
White bloods cells. Fight infections. Include monocytes, neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, and lymphocytes.
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Fibrinogen |
Sealant present in an inactive form
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Fibrin |
Active form of fibrinogen which aggregates into threads that form the framework of the clot.
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Hemophilia |
A disease characterized by excessive bleeding from minor cuts and bruises.
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Thrombus |
When platelets clump and fibrin coagulates within a blood vessel, blocking the flow of blood.
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Low-Density Lipoproteins |
Associated with the deposition of cholesterol in arterial plaques that develop on the inner walls of arteries.
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High-Density Lipoproteins |
Appears to reduce the deposition of cholesterol.
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Atherosclerosis |
Cardiovascular disease when plaques narrow the bore of the artery.
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Hyptertension |
High blood pressure.
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Heart Attack |
Death of cardiac muscle tissue resulting from prolonged blockage of one or more arteries.
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Stroke |
Death of nervous tissue in the head resulting in rupture or blockage of arteries in the head.
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Gas Exchange |
The uptake of oxygen and discharge of carbon dioxide.
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Respiratory Surface |
Part of an animal's body where gases are exchanged with the surrounding environment.
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Gills |
Outfoldings of the body surface suspended in water.
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Ventilation |
Increasing the flow of the respiratory medium over the respiratory surface.
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Countercurrent Exchange |
When blood flows in the direction opposite to the movement of water past the gills, making it possible to transfer oxygen to the blood.
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Tracheal System |
Made of air tubes that branch throughout an insect's body.
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Lungs |
Have a dense net of capillaries under the epithelium the forms the respiratory surface.
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Larynx |
Upper part of the respiratory tract.
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Glottis |
Opening of the windpipe.
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Trachea |
Windpipe
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Bronchi |
Trachea forks that lead to each lung.
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Bronchioles |
Branches of bronchi.
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Alveoli |
The end of bronchioles that end as a cluster of air sacs called ____.
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Positive Pressure Breathing |
Muscles lower the floor of the oral cavity, drawing air through the nostrils. Found in amphibians.
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Negative Pressure Breathing |
Pulls air into the lungs. Found in mammals.
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Diaphragm |
A sheet of skeletal muscle that forms the bottom wall of the chest cavity.
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Tidal Volume |
Volume of air a mammal inhales with each breath.
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Vital Capacity |
Maximum tidal volume during forced breathing.
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Residual Volume |
Air that remains in the lungs after exhaling.
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Medulla and Pons |
Breathing control centers in the brain.
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Partial Pressure |
Diffusion of a gas that depends on differences in a quantity.
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Bohr Shift |
A drop in pH lowers the affinity of affinity for oxygen.
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Innate Immunity |
Present before any exposure to pathogens and is effective from birth.
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Acquired Immunity |
Develops only after exposure to inducing agents such as microbes, abnormal body cells, toxins, or other foreign substances.
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Antibodies |
Bind to microbes and mark them for elimination
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Lysozyme |
An enzyme that digests cell walls of many bacteria.
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External Defenses |
Skin and Mucous Membranes
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Internal Defenses |
Phagocytic Cells, Antimicrobial Proteins, Inflammatory Proteins, and Natural Killer Cells
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Phagocytosis |
The ingestion of invading microorganisms by certain types of white blood cells.
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Neutrophils |
Constitute 60-70% which are attracted to and enter infected tissue. Self-destruct during the process.
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Monocytes |
Produce macrophages
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Eosinophils |
Have low phagocytic activity but are crucial to defense against multicellular parasitic invaders.
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Dendritic Cells |
Can ingest microbes like macrophages.
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Complement System |
Antimicrobial proteins that include 30 serum proteins.
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Interferon |
Provides innate defense against viral infections.
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Inflammatory Response |
Damage to tissue by physical injury or the entry of pathogens leads to released numerous chemical signals that trigger a(n) _____.
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Mast Cells |
Store histamines
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Histamines |
Dilate and increase permeability of nearby capillaries.
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Chemokines |
Direct migration of phagocytes and signal them to increase production of microbe killing compounds.
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Natural Killer Cells |
Patrol the body and attack virus infected body and cancer cells.
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Apoptosis |
Programmed cell death
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Cytokines |
Proteins that help activate lymphocytes and other cells of the immune system.
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Antigen |
Any foreign molecule that is specifically recognized by lymphocytes and elicits a response from them.
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Epitope |
A lymphocyte that recognizes and binds to a small, accessible portion of antigen.
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B Cell Receptor |
Y-shaped molecule consisting of two identical heavy and light chains linked by a disulfide bridge.
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Immunoglobulins |
Structurally similar to B cell receptors but lack the transmembrane regions that anchor receptors in the plasma membrane.
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T Cell Receptor |
Consists of an alpha and beta chain linked by a disulfide bridge.
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Class I Major Histocompatibility Complex |
Bind peptides derived from foreign antigens synthesized within the cell. Recognized by cytotoxic T cells.
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Class II Major Histocompatibility Complex |
Made by dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells.Bind peptides derived from foreign materials internalized and fragmented through phagocytosis or endocytes.
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Thymus |
Produces T cells.
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Bone Marrow |
Produces B cells.
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Effector Cells |
Short-lived cells that combat the antigen
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Memory Cells |
Long-lived cells bearing receptors specific for the same inducing antigen.
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Clonal Selection |
Each antigen, by binding to specific receptors, selectively activates a tiny fraction of cells from the body's pool of lymphocytes.
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Primary Immune Response |
Selective proliferation and differentiation of lymphocytes that occur the first time the body is exposed to a particular antigen.
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Secondary Immune Response |
If an individual is exposed to the same antigen, the response is faster, of greater magnitude, and prolonged.
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Humoral Immune Response |
Involves the activation and clonal selection of B cells.
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Cell-Mediated Immune Response |
Involves the activation and clonal selection of cytotoxic T cells.
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Helper T Cell |
Responds to peptide antigens displayed on antigen-presenting cells and in turn stimulates the activation of nearby B cells and cytotoxic T cells.
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CD4 |
Present in helper T cells that bind class II MHC molecules.
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CD8 |
Present in cytotoxic T cells the enchance the interaction between a target cell and cytotoxic T cell.
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Monoclonal Antibodies |
Produced by a certain culture and are identical to each other and specific for the same epitope on an antigen.
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Membrane Attack Complex (MAC) |
Generated from activated complement proteins and forms a pore in the membrane where ions rush into the cell, causing it to swell and lyse.
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Active Immunity |
Depends on the action of a person's own lymphocytes and the resulting memory cells specific for the invading pathogen.
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Passive Immunity |
Transferring antibodies from an individual who is immune to a particular infectious agent to someone who is not.
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Graft versus Host reaction |
Limited if the MHC molecules of the donor and recipient are well matched.
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Anaphylactic Shoc |
A whole-body, life-threatening reaction that can occur within seconds of exposure to an allergen.
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Autoimmune Diseases |
When the immune system loses tolerance for self and turns against certain molecules of the body.
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Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome |
One with this disease is highly susceptible to opportunistic infections and cancers that take advantage of an immune system in collapse.
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Human Immunodeficiency Virus |
A retrovirus that gains entry into cells by making use of three proteins that participate in normal immune response.
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Signal Transduction Pathway |
The process by which a signal on a cell's surface is converted to a specific response.
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Local Regulators |
Only influence cells in their vicinity.
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Paracrine Signaling |
Numerous cells can simultaneously receive and respond to the molecules of growth factor produced by a single cell in the vicinity.
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Synaptic Signaling |
An electrical signal along a nerve cell triggers the secretion of a chemical signal carried by neurotransmitter molecules.
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Hormones |
Travel via the Circulatory System to target cells in other parts of the body.
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Reception |
Target cell's detection of a signaling molecule coming from outside the cell.
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Transduction |
The binding of the signaling molecule changes the receptor protein in some way.
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Response |
The transduced signal that triggers a response.
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Ligand |
A molecule that specifically binds to another molecule, often a larger one.
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G Protein-Coupled Receptor |
Plasma membrane receptor that works with the help of G Protein.
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G Protein |
A protein that binds the energy rich molecule GTP.
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Receptor Tyrosine Kinanses |
Belong to a major class of plasma membrane receptors characterized by having enzymatic activity.
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Ligated-Gated Ion Channel |
Type of membrane receptor that can act as a gate when the receptor changes shape.
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Protein Kinase |
The general name for an enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a protein.
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Protein Phosphates |
Enzymes that rapidly remove phosphate groups from proteins, a process called dephosphorylation.
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Second Messengers |
Many signaling pathways involve small, nonprotein, water-soluble molecules or ions.
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First Messengers |
Binds to the membrane-receptor.
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Cyclic AMP |
The binding of epinephrine to the plasma membrane of a liver cell elevates the cytosolic concentration of a compound.
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Adenylyl Cyclase |
Converts ATP to cAMP in response to an extracellular signal.
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Scaffolding Proteins |
Large relay proteins to which several other relay proteins are simultaneously attached.
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Endocrine System |
Chemical signaling by hormones is the function when one of the two basic systems for communication and regulation throughout the body.
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Nervous System |
A network of specialized cells that transmit signals along dedicated pathways.
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Endocrine Glands |
Secrete hormones directly into the surrounding fluid.
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Autocrine Signaling |
Secreted molecules act on the secreting cell itself.
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Neurotransmitters |
Diffuse a very short distance to bind receptors on target cell. Central to sensation, memory, cognition, and movement.
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Neurohormones |
Neurosecretory cells secrete _____ which diffuse from nerve cell endings into the bloodstream.
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Pheremones |
Chemicals released into the external environment.
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Hypothalamus |
Receives information from nerves throughout the body and from other parts of the brain. In response, it initiates endocrine signaling appropriate to environmental conditions.
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Pituitary Gland |
Gland located at the base of the hypothalamus. Has discrete posterior and anterior lobes.
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Posterior Pituitary (neurohypophysis) |
Extension of the hypothalamus that grows downward toward the mouth during embryonic development.
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Anterior Pituitary (adrenohypophysis) |
Develops from a fold of tissue at the roof of the embryonic mouth. Grows upward toward the brain and eventually loses its connection to the mouth.
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Oxytocin |
Posterior Pituitary hormone that regulates milk in mammals during nursing, mediating by a simple neurohormone pathway.
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Antidiuretic Hormone |
Posterior Pituitary hormone that helps regulate blood osmolarity.
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Tropic Hormone |
Regulates the function of endocrine cells or glands.
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Follicle-Stimulating and Lutenizing Hormones |
Anterior Pituitary Tropic hormone that regulates the male gonads and female ovaries.
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Adrenocorticotropic Hormone |
Anterior Pituitary Tropic hormone that stimulates the production and secretion of steroid hormones by the adrenal cortex.
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Prolactin |
Anterior Pituitary Nontropic hormone that is remarkable for diversity of its effects among vertebrate species.
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Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone |
Regulates the activity of pigment-containing cells in the skin of some amphibians.
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Growth Hormone |
Secreted by the anterior pituitary that stimulates growth through tropic and nontropic effects.
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