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CBIO 2200: Exam 1
inductive method |
process of making many observations and making predictions from them
-- observation --> pattern --> tentative hypothesis --> theory |
hypothetico-deductive method |
begins with a question and hypothesis that is confirmed by observation
-- theory --> hypothesis --> observation --> confirmation |
palpation |
feeling a structure with the hands
(touch) |
ausculation |
listening to the sounds of the body
(listen/hear) |
percussion |
tapping the body to feel for resistance and listen for emitted air |
inspection |
looking at the body's appearance and making conclusions based on surface appearance
(look) |
anatomy |
the study of the human structure and its form |
physiology |
the study of function/ how the body works |
reductionism |
the theory that a large or complex system can be understood by studying its simple components |
holism |
the theory that an organism must be looked at as a whole to be understood. the organism cannot be predicted from properties of its separate parts.
the total/whole is the sum of its parts. |
hierarchy of complexity |
(atoms)
molecules
(organelles)
cells
tissues
organs
organ systems
organisms
|
homeostasis |
maintaining a stable environment internally regardless of external conditions
|
negative feedback |
a process in which the body senses a change and activates mechanisms that reverse the changes
ex: baroreceptors sense a change in blood pressure when a person moves from sitting to standing. when blood pressure falls baroreceptors respond and regulate blood pressure. |
positive feedback & rapid change |
a self-amplifying cycle in which a physiological change leads to even greater change in the same direction
ex: child birth-- fetus begins to push on cervix, nerve impulses from the cervix signal the pituitary gland to produce oxytocin that causes contraction which continue to produce oxytocin |
electrolytes |
any compound that conducts an electric current in an aqueous solution.
important in nervous and muscular systems |
isotopes |
a variant of a chemical element. an isotope has the same atomic number as parent element with a different number of neutrons |
radioisotopes |
unstable isotopes that give off radiation |
metabolism |
all chemical reactions in the body
2 division
catabolism
anabolism
|
catabolism |
energy releasing decomposition reactions (exergonic)
hydrolysis: water is used to split 2 components that contribute to the formation of the products |
anabolism |
energy-storing synthesis reactions (endergonic)
dehydration synthesis: synthetic reaction where water is a product removed from reactants |
monosaccharides |
simplest carbohydrate; simple sugars
most important
glucose
fructose
galactose |
disaccharides |
carbohydrate; sugar molecules composed of two monosaccharides
most important
sucrose = glucose + fructose
lactose = glucose + galactose
maltose = glucose + glucose |
passive transport |
membrane trasport that require no ATP
filtration
simple diffusion
osmosis
facilitated diffusion |
filtration |
particles are driven through a selectively permeable membrane by hydrostatic pressure |
simple diffusion |
net movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
movement down the concentration gradient
hydrophobic molecules diffuse through lipid bi-layer
hydrophilic molecules diffuse through channel proteins |
osmosis |
the flow of water from one side of a selectively permeable membrane to another; movement from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration
movement against the concentration gradient |
osmotic pressure |
the pressure required to stop osmosis |
tonicity |
the measure of osmotic pressure in reference to something
red blood cells
RBC's shrink in hypertonic solutions
RBC's swell in hypotonic solutions |
primary active transport |
transport of a solute against the concentration gradient; requires a carrier and ATP |
specificity |
transport proteins specify for a certain molecule |
saturation |
as solute concentration rises the rate of transport rises to a point of transport maximum |
vesicular transport |
the movement of large particle/ fluid droplets/ numerous molecules through a membrane by way of vesicles |
endocytosis |
a process of transport that brings matter into a cell |
exocytosis |
a process of transport the discharges material from a cell
secretion |
phagocytosis |
"cell eating" |
pinocytosis |
"cell drinking" |
endoplasmic reticulum |
two components: smooth and rough
smooth: manufactures all membranes of the cell, has no ribosomes
rough: has ribosomes that read mRNA and make proteins |
golgi complex |
a cell organelle with a system of channels where carbohydrates are synthesized |
lysosomes |
package of enzymes that digest all products taken in by cells
autophagy (digestion)
responsible for apoptosis |
peroxisomes |
simliar to lysosomes; responsible for oxidizing organic molecules
found abundantly in liver and kidneys |
mitochondria |
organelle that synthesizes ATP
"powerhouse" |
centrioles |
organelles that have a role in cell division
9+2 structure |
epithelial tissue |
tissue that covers the body surface and lines body cavities
a flat sheet of cells that closely adhere to one another on top of a basement membrane |
connective tissue |
fibrous
adipose
supportive
fluid |
fibrous connective tissue |
loose: cells and fibers have lots of space and ground substance between them
--- areolar and reticular
dense: cells and fibers have very little space and ground substance between them
--- regular and irregular
elastic tissue
areolar tissue
reticular tissue |
adipose tissue |
fat; tissue in which adipocytes are the primary cell type |
supportive connective tissues |
cartilage
bone/osseous tissue |
cartilage |
supportive connective tissue with flexibly rubbery matrix
chondroblasts: cells that lay down cartilage
chondrocytes: mature chondroblasts trapped in lacunae
perichondrium: around cartilage
types
hyaline
fibrocartilage
elastic |
bone osseous tissue |
spongy and compact tissue; supportive connective tissue
spongy: inside bone; surrounded by compact bone; spongy appearance; spicules/trabeculae
compact: no space; osteons
osteons
central canal
concentric lamellae
osteoblasts & osteocytes |
fluid connective tissue: blood |
composed of:
plasma--top
formed elements-- settle to bottom
-- erythrocytes (RBC's)
-- leukocytes (WBC's)
-- platelets |
nervous tissue |
tissue specialized for communication by means of electrical/chemical signals
excitability: capable of having response to stimuli
membrane potential: electron charge difference that causes excitability |
neuron |
nerve cells
neurosome (cell body)
dendrite
axon |
neuroglia/ glial cells |
support cells in nervous tissue |
muscle tissue |
excitability of this tissue leads to contractions
3 types of this tissue are
cardiac
smooth
skeletal |
skeletal muscle |
the cells in this muscle have multiple nuclei, striations and are voluntary
|
cardiac muscle |
cells in this muscle are called myocytes/cardiocytes; these muscles are striated and involuntary and have intercalated discs |
smooth muscle |
this muscle is visceral has no striations, one nucleus, fusiform cells, and is involuntary |
cell junction |
the connection between one cell and another |
tight junction |
a cell junction that links cells with transmembrane cell-adhesion proteins
in this junction there is no movement of ions down between the cells |
desmosomes |
cell junction structure of patch that holds cells together
j-shaped proteins
helps to resist mechanical stress |
gap junctions |
cell junction formed by connexons (orange-like structure)
allows for ion movement between cells |
hemidesmosomes |
cell junction that anchors the basale surface of an epithelial cell to the basement membrane |
gland |
a cell or organ that secretes substance |
secretion |
a substance secreted by a cell or organ that stays inside the body |
excretions |
a substance that is secreted and removed from the body
sweat, tears, etc. |
serous glands |
glands that secrete watery solution
tears, milk |
mucous glands |
glands that produce thick secretion/ glycoprotein called mucin |
mixed glands |
glands that produce serous and mucous secretions
salivary glands |
merocrine glands/ eccrine glands |
glands that release secretions by exocytosis
tear glands
digestive glands
pancreas |
holocrine glands |
glands in which cells accumulate their product and then disintegrate |
apocrine glands |
glands that give off a strong odor and release secretions by exocytosis
axillary, mammary and groin regions |
cutaneous membrane |
skin-- largest membrane in the body |
mucous membrane |
membrane that lines passages that open to the external environment
has 3 layers
epithelium: columnal cells with goblet cells
lamina propria: underlying connective tissue
muscularis mucosae: thin layer of smooth muscle |
serous membrane |
internal membrane that produces serous fluid; made up of simple squamous epithelium |
endothelium |
serous membrane that lines blood vessels |
mesolthelium |
serous membrane that lines a body cavity |
synovial membrane |
membrane that lines joint cavities and secretes synovial fluid |
differentiation |
characteristic cells undergoing tissue development. cell and tissues can change within certain limits |
stem cells |
undifferentiated cells found in embryos and adules |
totipotent |
characteristic of embryonic stem cells before the blastocyst stage to become any type of cell
"all power" |
pluripotent |
characteristic of embryonic stem cells in blastocyst stage to become almost any type of cell
"many power" |
multipotent |
characteristic of adult stem cells to become many different types of cells
"some power" |
unipotent |
characteristic of adult stem cell to become one type of cell
"one power" |
regeneration |
tissue repair in which cells are regenerated with all of their normal function |
fibrosis |
tissue repair in which nonfunctional fibrotic tissue replaces damaged tissue |
atrophy |
tissue shrinkage
senile: comes with normal aging
disuse: comes from nonuse/disuse |
necrosis |
death of tissue
infarction: when blood supply is completely cut off
gangrene: blood supply is greatly reduced |
apoptosis |
programmed cell death
mediated by fas which activated components that chop up DNA and destroy proteins |