PSYC 104: EXAM 1
190 Cards in this Set
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Developmental psychology
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the physiological, behavioral, cognitive, and social changes that occur throughout the human life, which are guided by both genetic predispositions (nature) and environmental influences (nurture)
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Neuron
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cell in the nervous system whose job is to receive and transmit info
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Soma
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contains the nucleus of the cell and keeps the cell alive
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Dendrite
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collects info from the other cells and sends it to the soma
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Axon
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transmits info away from the cell body toward other neurons or to the muscles and glands
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Myelin sheath
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layer of fatty tissue surrounding the axon of a neuron that both acts as an insulator and allows faster transmission of the electrical signal
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Terminal button
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the tip of each of the branches that branches out at the end of axons
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Synapses
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spaces between the cells
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Resting potential
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state in which the interior of the neuron contains a greater number of negatively charged than does the area outside the cell
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Action potential
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change in electrical charge that occurs when a nerve impulse is transmitted
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Node of Ranvier
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each of the gaps in the axon between the segments of myelin sheath
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Neurotransmitter
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chemical that relays signals across the synapses between the neurons
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Reuptake
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process in which neurotransmitters that are in the synapse are reabsorbed into the transmitting terminal buttons
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Acetylcholine (ACh)
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used in the spinal cord and motor neurons to stimulate muscle contractions. It’s also used in the brain to regulate memory, sleeping, and dreaming. Alzheimer’s disease is associated with an undersupply of it. Nicotine is an agonist that acts like it.
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Dopamine
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Involved in movement, motivation, and emotion, dopamine produces feelings of pleasure when released by the brain’s reward system, and it’s also involved in learning. Schizophrenia is linked to increases in it, whereas Parkinson disease is linked to reductions in it (and its agonists may b…
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Endorphins
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Released in response to behaviors such as vigorous exercise, orgasm, and eating spicy foods. They are natural pain relievers. They are related to the compounds found in drugs such as opium, morphine, and heroin. The release of it creates the runner’s high that is experienced after intense…
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GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
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The major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. A lack of it can lead to involuntary motor actions, including tremors and seizures. Alcohol stimulates the release of it, which inhibits the nervous system and makes us feel drunk. Low levels of it can produce anxiety, and its agonists (…
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Glutamate
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The most common neurotransmitter, it’s released in more than 90% of the brain’s synapses. It is found in the food additive MSG (monosodium _ Excess amounts can cause overstimulation, migraines, and seizures.
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Serotonin
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Involved in many functions, including mood, appetite, sleep, and aggression. Low levels of it are associated with depression, and some drugs designed to treat depression (known as selective _ reuptake inhibitors, or SSRIs) serve to prevent its reuptake.
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Brain stem
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controls the most basic functions of life, including breathing, attention, and motor responses
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Medulla
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area of the brain stem that controls heart rate and breathing
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Pons
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helps control the movements in the body – mainly balancing and walking
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Reticular formation
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filters out some of the stimuli that are coming into the brain from the spinal cord and relays the remainder of the signals to other areas of the brain – walking, eating, sexual activity, and sleeping
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Thalamus
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applies still more filtering to the sensory info coming from the spinal cord and through the reticular formation, and it relays some of these remaining signals to the higher brain levels
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Cerebellum
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functions to coordinate voluntary movement
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Limibic system:
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largely responsible for memory and emotions
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Amygdala
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regulate our perceptions of and reactions to aggression and fear
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Hypothalamus
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helps regulate body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sex drive and responds to the satisfaction of these needs by creating feelings of pleasure.
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Hippocampus
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stores info in long-term memory
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Glial cells
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cells that surround and link to the neurons, protecting them, providing them with nutrients, and absorbing unused neurotransmitters.
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Contralateral control
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in most cases the left hemisphere receives sensations from and controls the right side of the body, and vice versa.
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Motor cortex
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back of the frontal lobe - the part of the cortex that controls and executes movements of the body by sending signals to the cerebellum and the spinal cord.
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Somatosensory cortex
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in the parietal lobe - receives info from different parts of the body
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Visual cortex
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in the occipital lobe – processes visual info
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Auditory cortex
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temporal lobe - responsible for hearing and language
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Neuroplasticity
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brain’s ability to change its structure and function in response to experience or damage
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Neurogenesis
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forming of new neurons
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Cadaver
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good for studying structures, but not functions
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Lesion
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when the brain of living people may be damaged – loss of brain function can be observed
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Electroencephalograph (EEG):
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instrument that records the electrical activity produced by the brain’s neurons through the use of electrodes placed on the surface of the research participant’s head.
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Positron emission tomography (PET):
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an invasive imaging technique that provides color-coded images of brain activity by tracking the brain’s use of a radioactively tagged compound, such as glucose, oxygen, or a drug that has been injected into a person’s bloodstream
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Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI):
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a type of brain scan that uses a magnetic field to create images of brain activity in each brain area.
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Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS):
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a procedure in which magnetic pulses are applied to the brain of living persons with the goal of temporarily and safely deactivating a small brain region.
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Central nervous system (CNS):
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the brain and spinal cord - major controller of the body’s functions
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Peripheral nervous system (PNS):
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links the CNS to the body’s sense receptors, muscles, and glands
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Autonomic nervous system (ANS):
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the division of the PNS that governs the internal activities of the human body, including heart rate, breathing, digestion, salivation, perspiration, urination, and sexual arousal.
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Somatic nervous system (SNS):
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division of the PNS that controls the external aspects of the body, including the skeletal muscles, skin, and sense organs.
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Sympathetic division of the ANS:
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preparing the body for rapid action in response to stress from threats or emergencies by activating the organs and glands in the endocrine system.
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Parasympathetic division of the ANS:
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calm the body by slowing the heart and breathing and by allowing the body to recover from the activities that the sympathetic system causes.
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Homeostasis:
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your body’s normal state
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Glands:
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groups of cells that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
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trust vs. mistrust
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-birth - 18 months
-child develops a sense of trust in his/her caregivers
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autonomy vs. shame/doubt
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- 18 months-3 years
-child learns what he/she can and can't control and develops a sense of free will
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initiative vs. guilt
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- 3-6 years
- kid learns to be independent by exploring, manipulating, and taking action
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industry vs. inferiority
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6-12 years
- kid learns to do things well or correctly according to standards set by others, particularly in school
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identity vs. role confusion
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- 12-18 years
-adolescent develops a well-defined and positive sense of self in relationship to others
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intimacy vs. isolation
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- 19-40 years
- person develops the ability to give and receive love and to make long-term commitments
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generativity vs. stagnation
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- 40-65 years
- person develops an interest in guiding the development of the next generation, often by becoming a parent
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ego integrity vs. despair
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- 65-death
- person develops acceptance of his or her life as it was lived
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conception
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egg from mom is fertilized with egg from dad
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ovulation
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when an ovum has been stored in one of mom's 2 ovaries, matures, and is released into the fallopian tube
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zygote
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fertilized egg/ovum with 23 pairs of chromosomes
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embryo
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when the zygote attaches to the fetus wall
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amniotic sac
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fluid-filled reservoir in which the embryo (almost fetus) lives until birth. It acts as a cushion against outside pressure and a temperature regulator
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placenta
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organ that allows the exchange of nutrients between the mom and the embryo, while at the same time filtering out harmful material
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umbilical cord
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links the embryo directly to the mom and transfers all material to the fetus
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fetus
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the embryo becomes this in the 9th week of conception
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teratogens
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substances that harm the fetus
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fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
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condition caused by maternal drinking that can lead to many detrimental effects, including limb and facial abnormalities, genital anomalies, and mental retardation
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rooting reflex
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aids in breastfeeding - when the baby's cheek is lightly touched, it turns its head in that direction
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sucking reflex
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babies start sucking when their lips are lightly touched
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blink reflex
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the baby will blink when tapped on the top of the head
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grasp reflex
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infants close their hands in a grip when their palm is touched
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moro reflex
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The head and legs extend and the arms move up and out when they hear a loud noise or feel a lack of support. Then the arms cross across the body with fists clenched.
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stepping reflex
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babies move their legs in a stepping motion when supported in a standing position on a flat surface
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babinsky reflex
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when you brush an infant's foot from heel to toe, he spreads out his toes except for the big toe, which goes upwards, and he turns his foot inwards
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schemas
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patterns of knowledge in long-term memory that help them to remember, organize, and respond to information
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assimilation
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they use already developed schemas to understand new info
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accommodation
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learning new info, and thus changing the schema
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sensorimotor stage
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the cognitive stage that begins at birth and ends around 2. It's defined by direct physical interactions that babies have with the objects around them
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object permanence
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child's ability to know that an object exists even when the object cannot be perceived
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preoperational stage
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- 2-7
-children begin to use language and think more abstractly about objects, but their understanding is more intuitive and without much ability to deduce or reason
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theory of mind
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ability to take another person's viewpoint
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concrete operational stage
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more frequent and accurate use of transitions, operations, and abstract concepts, including those of time, space, and big numbers
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conservation
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the understanding that change in the form of an object does not mean change in quantity
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formal operational stage
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-age 11
-ability to think in abstract terms and to use scientific and philosophical lines of thought
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internalized
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take place symbolically in our minds
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scaffolding
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caregivers can support the child to achieve higher cognitive levels by providing support and guidance
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zone of proximal development
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abilities that a child is just starting to be able to use
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self-awareness
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the realization that they are a distinct individual, whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those of others
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self-concept
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schema that contains knowledge about ourselves, including our beliefs about our personality traits, physical characteristics, etc.
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social comparison
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- 6/7
-begin to evaluate themselves against their observations of other kids
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attachment
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emotional bonds we develop with those whom we feel closest
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secure attachment style
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usually explores freely while mom is present and engages with stranger
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ambivalent or insecure-resistant attachment style
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wary about the situation in general, mainly the stranger, and clings to mom
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avoidant or insecure-avoidant attachment style
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will avoid or ignore the mom, showing little emotion when mom leaves
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disorganized attachment style
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seems to have no consistent way of coping with the stress of the situation
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temperament
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the innate personality characteristics of an infant - the pattern of attention, arousal, and reactivity to new situations
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easy babies
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- 40%
-regular sleeping and eating habits, adapted quickly
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slow-to-warm-up babies
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-15%
-withdrawn, moody, took longer to adapt
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difficult babies
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10% fussy, fearful of new situations, intense reactions
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no-single-category babies
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- 35%
variety of traits
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parenting styles
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parental behaviors that determine the nature of parent-child interactions & that guide their interaction with the kids
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authoritarian parents:
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demanding but not responsive
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authoritative
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demanding and responsive
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rejecting-neglecting parents
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not demanding and not responsive
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permissive
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not demanding, but responsive
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adolescence
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years between puberty and adulthood
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primary sex characteristics
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sex organs concerned with reproduction
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secondary sex characteristics
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distinguish genders but aren't sex organs
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menarche
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first period
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permarche
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sperm development in testicles
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prefrontal cortex
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area of the brain responsible for reasoning, planning, and problem solving, also continues to develop in teens
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myelin
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fatty tissue that forms around axons and neurons and helps speed transmissions between different regions of the brain - continues to grow in teens
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egocentrism
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teens believe that they can do anything, and believe they know more than anyone else, including their parents
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imaginary audience
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teens feel like everyone is watching them
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role experimentation
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teen "tries on" different identities
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foreclosure status
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when they adopt the beliefs of their parents or the first role offered to them
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moratorium status
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when they spend years trying different identities
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identity-achievement status
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teen integrates different ones into 1 identity
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preconventional level
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o Until about age 9, children focus on self-interest. At this stage, punishment is avoided and rewards are sought.
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conventional level
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begins to care about how situational outcomes impact others and wants to please and be accepted. At this developmental phase, people are able to value the good that can be derived from holding to social norms in the form of laws or less formalized rules
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postconventional level
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individuals employ abstract reasoning to justify behaviors. Moral behavior is based on self-chosen ethical principles that are generally comprehensive and universal, such as justice, dignity, and equality.
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menopause
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cessation of period
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social clock
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culturally preferred "right time" for major life events
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late adulthood
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final stage of life beginning in 60s
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crystallized intelligence
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general knowledge about the world, as reflected in semantic knowledge, vocabulary, and language
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fluid intelligence
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the ability to think and acquire info quickly and abstractly
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dementia
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progressive neurological disease that includes loss of cognitive abilities significant enough to interfere with everyday behaviors
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alzheimer's disease
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form of dementia that, over a period of years, leads to a loss of emotions, cognitions, and physical functioning, and that is ultimately fatal
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What are the five stages of grief?
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1. denial
2. anger
3. bargaining
4. depression
5. acceptance
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scaffolding
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a good parent/teacher helps kid beyond their current level of thinking by creating supports
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humanism
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each person is inherently good and motivated to learn from and improve to become a healthy, functioning person
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hierarchy of needs
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internal motivation to strive for self-actualization
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positive psychology
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scientific study of optimal human functioning
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neuroimaging
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use of various techniques to provide pics of the structures and functioning of the living brain
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cognitive psychology
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study of how we think, process info, and solve problems, how we learn and remember, and how we acquire and use language
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social psychology
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study of how social situations and cultures in which people live influence thinking, feeling, and behavior
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individualism
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western cultures - valuing the self and one's independence from others
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collectivism
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eastern cultures - developing harmonious relationships with others, group togetherness and connectedness, and duty to one's family and other groups
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developmental psychology
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study of development of a human from birth to death
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clinical psychology
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diagnosis and treatment of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders and ways to promote psychological health
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personality psychology
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study of the differences and uniqueness of people and the influences on a person's personality
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empirical study
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results of verifiable evidence from a systematic collection and analysis of data that has been objectively observed, measured, and undergone experimentation
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basic research
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research that answers fundamental questions about behavior
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applied research
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research that investigates issues that have implications for everyday life and provides situations for everyday problems
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theory
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integrated set of principles that explains and predicts many, but not all, observed relationships in a given domain of inquiry
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4 Characteristics of Good Theories
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General- summarizes different outcomes
Parsimonious- provides simplest possible outcomes
Provides ideas for future research
Falsifiable - variables can be proven incorrect through research
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Piaget's theory
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kids pass through series of cognitive stages, each which has to be mastered before moving on
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research hypothesis
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precise statement of presumed relationship among specific parts of a theory
-also a specific and falsifiable prediction about the relationship between 2 or more variables
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variable
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any attribute that can assume different values among different people or across different times or places
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conceptual variables
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abstract ideas that form the basis of research hyptheses (age, gender, weight)
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measured variables
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conceptual variables are turned into this - variables consisting of #s that represent conceptual variables
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operational definition
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precise statement of how a conceptual variable is turned into a measured variable
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scientific method
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set of assumptions, rules, and procedures scientists use to conduct research
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reliability
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can be tested with replication
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replication
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process of repeating previous research, which forms the basis of all scientific inquiry
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institutional review board
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committee of at least 5 members whose goal is to determine the cost benefit ratio of research conducted in an institution
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deception
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when research participants aren't fully informed about the nature of the research project before participating in it
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informed consent
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explain research procedures and inform participant of his/her rights during investigation
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debriefing
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procedure used to fully explain purposes and procedures of the research and removing any harmful afftereffects
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research design
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specific method researcher uses to collect, analyze, and interpret data
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What are the 3 types of research designs?
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descriptive
correlational
experimental
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descriptive research
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provides snapshot of current state of affairs
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correlational research
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discovers relationships among variables and allows the prediction of future events from present knowledge
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experimental research
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random assignment of research participants into 2 groups. followed by a manipulation of a given experience for 1 group while the other isnt manipulated. then compared
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What are different types of descriptive research?
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Case study - in-depth analysis of individual, group, event
Naturalistic observation - observes behavior in natural setting
Survey - asking large sample of people a question about their attitudes or behaviors
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case study
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descriptive records of 1 or more person's experiences and behaviors
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survey
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measure to get a picture of beliefs and behaviors of people of interest
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naturalistic observation
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based on observation of everyday events occurring in natural environment of people/animals
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observer bias
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person observing behavior is influenced by his/her own experiences, expectations, or knowledge about the purpose of the observation or study
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observer effect
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interference with or modification of the subject's behaviors by the process of observation
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interrater reliability
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score that can estimate how much agreement there is between the 2 observers about what the subjects are doing
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correlational research
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predictor and outcome variables
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scatter plot
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visual image of relationship between 2 variables
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linear relationship
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when the association between 2 variables on the scatter plot can easily be approximated with a straight line
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pearson correlation coefficient
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most common statistical measure of the strength of linear relationships among variables
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common-casual variable
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variable that's not part of the research hypothesis, but causes both the predictor and outcome variable and produces observed correlation
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spurious relationship
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relationship between 2 variables in which a common-casual variable produces and "explains away" the relationship
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independent variable
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causing variable that's manipulated
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dependent variable
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measured variable influenced by manipulation
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random assignment to conditions
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procedure in which the condition that each participant is assigned to is determined randomly
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quasi-experimental design
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compares 2 groups that exist in population
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2 threats to validity of research
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internal validity
external validity
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Internal validity
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extent to which we can trust conclusions that've been drawn about the casual relationship between the independent variables and dependent ones
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confounding variables
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variables other than the indepenedent variable on which the participants in 1 experimental condition differ systematically from those in other conditions
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experimenter bias
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experimenter subtly treats research in the various conditions differently, resulting in an invalid confirmation of the hypothesis
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external validity
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extent to which results of a research design can be generalized beyond the specific way the original experiment was conducted
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generalization
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extent to which relationships among conceptual variables can be demonstrated in a wide variety of people and manipulated/ measured variables
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replication
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process of repeating previous research, which forms basis of all scientific inquiry
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PSYC 104: EXAM 1