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BIO 183: FINAL EXAM
Metastasis |
Occurs when cancer cells enter the bloodstream of surrounding body fluids
|
Metastatic tumor |
can migrate to other parts of the body |
invasice tumor |
can invade healthy tissue |
malignant tumor |
loss of normal growth regulation: can cause death if untreated |
Carcinogens |
agents that increase the likelihood of developing cancer |
Causes of cancer |
Mutagens, Viruses |
How Viruses cause cancer |
1) modifying the genes in the host cell
2) carrying oconogenes in the viral genome |
Tumor-repressor gene |
Normally codes for a gene that prevents cancer, but when mutated, it eliminates this function and can cause cancer
|
Oconogen |
When a mutation causes this gene to be overactive, uncontrolled cell growth occurs |
Cause of nondisjunction |
One set of homologs fails to seperate, causing all gametes to have an abnormal number of chromosomes |
Nondisjunction |
Chromosomes fail to seperate in meiosis I or II |
Nucleotide excision repair |
the segment with nucleotides in the damaged strand is removed from the DNA. The undamaged strand is used as a template. Occurs in all eukaryotes and prokaryotes |
Reciprocal translocation |
An even exchange between segments of 2 chromosomes |
Simple translocation |
One segment of a chromosome becomes attatched to another chromosome
|
Chromosomal inversions |
chromosomal change in direction
|
Chromosomal duplication |
Chromosomal selection occurs 2 or more times in a row |
Chromosomal deficiencies |
A segment of the chromosome is missing (deletion) |
Mutations |
A heritable change in the genetic material: causes genetic variation |
Carpel |
Function: central female organ of the flower. It's generally bowling pin shaped and in the center of the flower |
Stigma |
Function: Receives pollen, typically flattened and sticky |
Style |
Function: Connective tissues between the stigma and ovary |
Ovary |
Function: Contains ovules or embryo sacs
|
Ovules |
Function: Unfertilized, immature seeds
|
Stamen |
Function: Male flower organ |
Anther |
Function: pollen producing organs |
Filament |
Function: supports the anther
|
Petals |
Function: Usually colorful, may contain perfume and nectar glands |
Sepals |
Function: Protective leaf-like enclosures forthe flower buds; usually green
|
Receptacle |
The base of the flower |
Simple Fruit |
1 flower, 1 ovary |
Agregate fruit |
many ovaries of one flower |
multiple fruit |
many ovaries of very clustered flowers
|
Strawberry |
example of agregate fruit |
pineapple |
example of multiple fruit
|
Monoecious |
carpels and stamen in one plant. Ex) Corn: female = silk, male = tassel
|
Dioecious |
Carpels and stamen in seperate plants
|
sagitaria |
example of dioecious plant |
Pea |
example of simple fruit |
Ovules |
Where mitosis/meiosis occurs |
Ovary |
Where fertilization occurs in plants
|
Multicellular structures |
Megaspores, microspores, embryo sac, pollen grain
|
Megaspores |
Female: develop into female gametophytes which produce egg cells
|
Microspores |
Male: develop into male gametophytes which produce sperm cells |
Embryo Sac |
Female gametophyte |
Pollen grain |
male gametophyte
|
Double fertilization |
When one sperm fertilizes the egg and one sperm fertilizes the polar nuclei
|
Pollen germination |
Changes that occur in the pollen grain; starting with hydration and ending with the formation of the pollen tube (from the tube cell) |
Antipodal cells |
3 haploid cells in the mature embryo sac of flowering plants |
synergids |
nourish the egg of plants |
Cotyledons |
First structures that emerge in embryo development |
Suspensor Cells |
Attatch the embryo to the parental tissue in plants
|
Proembryo |
different tissues of the developing embryo: protoderm, meristem, procambium |
Protoderm |
Becomes integumentary tissue in plants (epithelial) |
Meristem |
All other tissues in plants
|
Procambium |
Becomes vascular tissue which then becomes xyolem and phloem in plants
|
endosperm |
surrounds the embryo and provides nourishment for it |
Seeds must be dispersed far away from the mother plant so that they can find a favorable and less competitive environment to germinate and grow |
Why is fruit important? |
Single seeded with one cotyledon. Embryonic shoot tip and root protected by tissue. |
Structure of monocot
|
Coleoptile |
Tissue sheath that protects the embryonic shoot tip in plants
|
Coleorhiza |
Tissue sheath that protects the embryonic root |
Embryo with large cotyledons |
Structure of dicot
|
Epicotyl |
The embryonic shoot above the cotyledons: in monocots it will develop into the plant
|
Hypocotyl |
In dicots, what appears to be the base of the stem: under the withered cotyldeons
|
Radicle |
The portion of the embryo that gives rise to the root system of a plant |
Fire, rainfall, harsh winters, light |
Environmental cues for germination to occur |
DNA replication |
When puberty occurs for males
|
Meiosis I |
When puberty occurs for females
|
Lydig cells |
produce testosterone in the presence of LH |
Sertoli cells |
Type of spermatic cell around which spermatids develop in the tubules of the testes |
Polar bodies |
Also found in the embryo sac of plants, unknown function, released after meiosis in oogenesis and degenerate
|
Follicle |
Basic unit of female reproduction: each contains a single oocyte |
Graffian follicle |
A fluid filled structure in the ovary where an ovum develops before ovulation
|
Corpus luteum |
hormone secreting structure that develops in the ovary after an ovum has been discharged: degenerates after a few days unless pregnancy has begun
|
Primary oocyte |
Cell whose primary function is to divide by meiosis |
Secondary oocyte |
Oocyte in which the first meiotic division is completed: usually stops short of completion unless pregnancy occurs
|
Vitelline envelope |
formed from extracellular components in oviparous animals |
Zona pellucida |
formed from extracullular components in mammals |
Jelly layer |
Fromed in some species outside the vitelline envelope |
Cortical granules |
Vesicles filled with enzymes
|
acrosomal reaction, cortical reaction, activation of the egg |
Three steps of fertilization |
sprem cell contacts egg and releases hydrolytic enzymes to dissolve the jelly layer, sperm binding proteins are exposed: they bind to the sperm, sperm and egg plasma membranes fuse: the sperm's nucleus enters the egg |
Acrosomal reaction process |
IP3 is released from the plasma membrane near fusion site, stimulating the release of Ca2+ from the ER, stimulating the exocytosis of the corticle granules, the contents of the ganules cause the vitelline layer and plasma membrane to seperate: destroying sperm binding proteins: the vitelline layer hardens |
Cortical reaction process |
sperm and egg nuclei fuse to form a zygote (completion of meiosis II) |
Egg activation process |
2 months |
When an embryo becomes a fetus |
clevage, gastrulation, organogenesis |
3 phases of early development |
Animal pole |
The portion of the egg where the yolk is least concentrated
|
Vegetal pole |
The portion of the egg where the yolk is most concentrated: where it's plump |
Complete cleavage (Holoblastic) |
The complete division of an egg into blastomeres |
Incomplete cleavage (meroblastic) |
The partial cleavage of eggs in certain animals |
Ectoderm |
Gives rise to nervous system, cornea and lens, epidermis of skin, lining of mouth and rectum, tooth enamel |
Mesoderm |
Gives rise to notochord, skeletal system, circular system, muscular system, lining of body cavity |
Endoderm |
Gives rise to epitheleal ling of tracts, liver, pancreas, thyroid, thymus |
Blastopore |
Becomes the anus in deuterosomes and the mouth in protosomes |
Archenteron |
Forms the primitive gut |
3 embryonic tissues are arranged in layers, the gut has formed, the major body axes are visible |
3 main results from gastrulation
|
Embryogenesis |
cleavage and gastrulation: the process in which the embryo forms and develops |
Notochord |
Rod shaped support organ which causes the neural plate to form |
Neural plate |
Sends signals to the ectoderm- forms the neural tube |
Neural tube |
gives rise to the brain and spinal cord; development of the central nervous system |
somites |
Repeating blocks of tissue on either side of the notochord; unique to vertebrates
|
FSH and LH |
male reproductive hormones
|
FSH |
initiates spermatogenisis in males, stimulates the ovaries to create estrogen and progesterone in females |
LH |
Signals the release of testosterone in males |
Estrogen |
Conversion of girls to women, prepares for the monthly possibility of pregnancy, aides in pregnancy
|
Progesterone |
Stimulates the uterus to prepare for pregnancy |
Pituitary gland |
secretes FSH and LH |
Hypothalamus |
Secretes GnRH: sending signals to the pituitary gland |
Secondary sexual characteristics |
characteristics that occur after puberty
|
Follicle grows in response to FSH, LH and FSH levels increase, stimulating ovulation |
Follicular phase of ovarian cycle |
CL forms on the ovary secretes progesterone, making the uterus ready for an embryo |
Luteal phase of ovarian cycle |
The egg is grabbed by the fallopian tubes and waits there for the sperm cell |
What happens if fertilization occurs
|
24 hours |
How long after fertilization does cell division begin? |
Blastocyst |
Ball of cells (embryo one week after fertilization)
|
Endometrium |
Where implantation occurs |
Trophoblast |
Finger like projections that eventually turn into endometrial tissue
|
HCG |
promotes the maintenance of CL during the beginning of pregnancy. Allows the CL to secrete progesterone during the first trimester.
|
embryo |
what secretes HCG and what the HCG maintains |
Placenta |
What takes over the role of HCG at the beginning of the second trimester? |