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BIO 205: Exam 3
Lipid Metabolism
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Burning Triglycerides to generate ATP
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How much ATP does 1 glycerol produce?
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12 ATP
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How much ATP does 1 C-C fatty acid chain produce?
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16
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Burning fats yields about ______ times the yield of burning glucose.
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1.5
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Amino Acid Catabolism is bad because.....
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1.)It I difficult for the body to burn amino acids
2.)Proteins are needed for other things
3.)Denaturing the amino acid is toxic
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What are the 2 parts of the integumentary system?
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Epidermis and Dermis
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What is the epidermis made of?
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Stratified squamous epithelium
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What is the dermis made of?
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Areolar Connective Tissue
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What are the 2 layers of the dermis?
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1)Papillary
2.)Reticular
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What does the Papillary Layer consist of?
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Areolar connective tissue with a lot of elastin in it
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What does the reticular layer consist of?
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Areolar Connective tissue
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Is the hypodermis part of the integumentary system?
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No
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What does the hypodermis consist of?
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Adipose connective tissue
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What are the functions of the skin?
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1.)Protection against foreign invaders
2.)Maintains body temperature
3.)Excretory gland
4.)Sensory Functioning
5.)Vitamin D Production
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Stratum Germinativum (=basale)
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-deepest skin layer
-consists of cells actively undergoing mitosis
-from this layer, cells move up and out over about 15-30 days
-cells are strongly attached to each other by desmosomes
-forms a barrier
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Stratum Spinosum
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-As the cells move up and out, they become polyhedral in the shape
-they begin to form particles of keratin and keratohyalin
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Stratum Granulosum
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-Outermost living cell layer
-Granules of keratin and keratohyalin "take over" cytoplasm
-Cells begin to die because they have moved so far from the capillaries in the papilla of the dermis
-nucleus disintegrates
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Malpighian Cells
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-Compose the stratum germinativum that divides and move up and out over 15-30 days
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Melanocytes
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-Found mostly in the stratum Germinativum
-They have long, branchy processes that extend up and between malpighian cells
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Which amino acid kicks off the production of melanin?
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Tyrosine
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What is the melanin enclosed in?
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Melanosomes that are produced by the Golgi apparatus
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What is the shape of the melanocytes found in redheads?
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round
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What is the typical shape of melanocytes?
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Oval
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What makes the melanocytes in Africans different?
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They are slightly longer with more pigment (not more melanocytes)
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Langerhan Cells
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-Found in stratum spinosum and stratum granulosum
-Lo0k like melanocytes
-are actually phagocytic cells of the skin
-wander around looking for invaders and engulf them
-true dendritic cells
-especially important for infections of the skin, like HIV and AIDS
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What happens to the Langerhan cells when using drugs?
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Dendritic cells are suppressed
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Merkel Cells
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-Found in the stratum germinativum
-do not undergo mitosis
-Associated with the free nerve ending in the papillae
-specialized mechanoreceptors for shape and texture
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Stratum Lucidum
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-Cells die in stratum granulosu, and release the contents into this
-layer consists of dead, empty husks
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Stratum Corneum
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-Piece and strands of dead cells are compressed
-lots of keratin, which provides waterproofing
-constantly sloughing off, taking bacteria and viruses with it
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What are the functions of the Papillary Layer?
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-Consists of the papillae, which are little invaginations
-have lots of capillaries and meissner's corpuscles
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What are Meisner's Corpuscles?
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Receptors of light touch
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What are the functions of the Reticular Layer
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-Deeper and much wider than the papillary layer
-consists of a network of fibers running in all different directions
-sweat glands, hair follicles, and sebaceous glands are also found here
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What is another name for a sweat gland?
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Sudoriferous Glands
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Sympathetic Nervous System
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-fight or flight
-fire when you become aroused
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What are the 2 kinds of sweat glands?
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1.)Eccrine glands
2.)Apocrine glands
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What is an eccrine gland?
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-Secrete through Merocrine secretion
-found in entire body except lips and genitalia
-stimulated by heat and nervous, produces sweat for cooling
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What is an apocrine gland?
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-Actually secretes through Merocrine secretion
-found in axilla and genitalia
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What do the 2 kinds of sweat glands secrete?
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-Water
-Salt
-pheromones
-urea
-uric acid
-phosphates
-lactic acid
-ascorbic acid
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Cercuminous Glands
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Exist in the ear canal and manufacture ear wax
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Mammary lands
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Produce milk
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Hair follicle
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Consists of the 2 living layers of epidermis cells folded deep into the dermis
-hairs are compressed dead cells
-keratin, keratohyalin, and pigments that are made by the hair follicle make the hair to be sort of the same as stratum corneum
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Arrector Pili Muscle
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-Erect the hairs of the body to increase insulation
-cause goosebumps
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Sabaceous Glands
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Coat the hair and make it supple
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How fast do fingernails grow per day?
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.01 mm
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How fast do toenails grow per day?
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.005 mm
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What does the Central Nervous System consist of?
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-Brain
-Spinal Cord
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Peripheral Nervous System
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-all of the nerves outside the CNS
-13 cranial nerves
-31 spinal nerves
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Afferent Division
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-incoming or sensory part of the PNS
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Efferent Division
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-Outgoing or motor part of the PNS
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What are the 2 kinds of the efferent division?
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1.)Somatic Nervous System
2.)Autonomic Nervous System
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Somatic Nervous System
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-Controls the contraction of the voluntary skeletal muscles of the body
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Autonomic Nervous System
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-Regulates the blood vessels, smooth muscles of the gut, cardiac muscles of the heart, and the glands
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What are the 2 kinds of the Autonomic Nervous System?
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1.)Sympathetic
2.)Parasympathetic
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Sympathetic
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-fight or flight
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Parasympathetic
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-fires when you are not threatened
-promotes digestion and digestion
-rest and rumination system
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What are the 2 types of nervous system cells
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1.)neurons
2.)neuroglial cells
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What are the 6 kinds of neroglial cells?
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1.) Schwann Cells
2.) Satellite Cells
3.)Astrocyttes
4.)Oligodendrocytes
5.)Microglia
6.)Ependymal Cells
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What is the cytoplasm of the neuron cells made up of?
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Organelles and nissl substance, many pigments, and lipofuscin
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Unipolar Neuron
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No dendrites, only a single axon sticking out of the cell body, common in embryos and fetuses, rare in adults
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Schwann Cells
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Wraps neurons either loosely or tightly in PNS
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Oligodendrocytes
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-Wrap neurons either loosely or tightly in CNS
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Astrocytes
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-Found in the CNS
-Provides framework for neurons and capillaries
-Form the blood brain barrier
-regulate nutrients and wastes that go to and leave the neurons
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Satellite Cells
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-Sort of the astrocytes of the PNS
-they certainly provides a structural framework
-they seem to regulate what passes from blood to neuron
-less effective
-implicated with chronic pain syndrome
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Ependymal Cells
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-Line the cavities of the CNS
-Ventricles of the brain and central canal of the spinal cord
-produce cerebral spinal fluid
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Microglia
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-Found in the CNS
-Phagocytic cells for foreign invaders in the CNS and ingest and eat damaged neural tissue
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What are the 2 kinds of synapses found in humans
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1.)Chemical Synapse
2.)Electrical Synapse
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Chemical Synapse
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-A synapse that uses a chemical neurotransmitter to cross a synapse
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Electrical Synapse
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-Gap junction is used or a nexus
-pretty rare, found deep in brain
-uses electricity to bridge the synapse by using a gap junction between neurons
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What are the 2 kinds of chemical neurotransmitters?
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1.)Excitatory neurotransmitters
2.)Inhibitory neurotransmitters
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Excitatory neurotransmitters
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-causes depolarization and promote an action potential in the post-synaptic neuron
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Inhibitory Neurotransmitters
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-causes hyperpolarization and inhibit an action potential in the post synaptic neuron
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Step 1 of the action potential
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the action potential of the pre-synaptic neuron arrives at the end bulb
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Step 2 of the action potential
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opens protein channels for the Ca+, Ca+ rushes in to the end bulb of the neuron
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Step 3 of the action potential
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this Ca+ influx causes vesicles with neurotransmitters to move to the cell membrane inner surface and release the neurotransmitter by exocytosis
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Step 4 of the action potential
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the neurotransmitter chemical crosses the synapse and binds to receptor proteins on the post-synaptic neuron surface
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Step 5 of the action potential
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Causes an action potential to form in the post-synaptic neuron surface
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Step 6 of the action potential
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Neurotransmitter is quickly broken down by the enzyme
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Are synapses unidirectional?
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yes
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What are some other chemicals made and released at the synapse that are not neurotransmitters?
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Neuromodulators
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Neuromodulators
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can modulate a response of the post synaptic neuron
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What is the most common kind of neuromodulators?
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Opioids like endorphins
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