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BIOL 213: FINAL EXAM
Anatomy |
study of structure and form |
Physiology |
study of functions of the body parts
|
Levels of organization |
simplest to complex
-Chemical: atoms, molecules
-Cellular: cells, organelles
-Tissue: group of similar cells
-Organ: 2 or more tissue types
-Organ system: organs working together
-Organism: all organ systems |
Anabolism |
small molecules are joined to form larger molecules |
Catabolism |
large molecules are broken down into smaller molecules
|
Glycolysis |
metabolic process that occurs in the cytosol without the requirement of oxygen |
4 types of macromolecules |
nucleic acids, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids |
Lipids |
molecules that store energy and regulate metabolic processes
|
Proteins |
molecules that provide structural support, storage, transport, cell communication, movement, and defense
|
Carbohydrates |
molecules that provide fuel and build structures in the body |
Nucleic acids |
DNA & RNA; molecules that enable living organisms to reproduce genetic information from one generation to the next |
Water |
universal solvent
role in body:
regulates body temp.
cushions against sudden movements
transports substances in blood
lubricates
high surface tension
has a neutral pH |
Plasma membrane |
the outer, limiting barrier separating internal contents from external environment
|
Nucleus |
largest structure
houses DNA
|
Cytoplasm |
term for all cellular contents between plasma membrane and nucleus |
Membrane-bound organelles |
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
mitochondrion
Golgi apparatus
peroxisome
lysosome |
Non-membrane-bound organelles |
ribosomes
centrisome
proteasome
cytoskeleton
cytosol
|
Epithelial tissue |
c: tightly packed cells with minimal extracellular matrix
f: covers body & organ surfaces, lines body & organ cavities |
Connective tissue |
c: contains cells, protein fibers & ground substance
f: binds, supports & protects other tissues & organs
|
Muscle tissue |
c: cells may be spindle-shaped, branching or cylindrical; contain myofilaments
f: moves the skeleton or organ walls
|
Nervous tissue |
c: contains neurons & glial cells
f: transmits nerve impulses & processes information |
Integument |
protects internal body structures
body's largest organ
7 to 8% of body weight
|
Effect of sunlight on skin |
when exposed to the sun, melanocytes become more active
& produce more melanin giving the skin a tanned look
|
Structure & composition of bones |
continually rebuilds & remodels itself
compact bone- dense connective bone tissue, solid
spongy bone- internal to compact
cartilage- flexible
ligaments, tendons
|
Function of bones |
structural framework
protect delicate tissues
movement
hemopoiesis: blood cell production
storage: reserve of minerals calcium & phosphate
|
Osteoblasts |
bone-forming
secrete osteoid |
Osteoclasts |
bone-reabsorbing
resorb bone matrix along medullary cavity |
Intramembranous Ossification |
Bone tissue replaces connective tissue
examples: Flat bone of the skull, some facial bones, mandible, central part of the clavicle |
Endochondral Ossification |
Bones tissue replaces hyaline cartilage
examples: upper & lower limbs, pelvis, vertebrae, ends of clavicle |
Synovial joint |
fluid-filled joint cavity that separates articulating surfaces |
Fibrous joint |
occurs where bones are held together
|
Cartilaginous joint |
occurs where bones are joined by cartilage |
Synarthrosis |
immobile joint |
Amphiarthrosis |
slightly mobile joint
|
Diarthrosis |
freely mobile joint
|
Common injuries |
Dislocation: joint injury where the articulating bones have separated
Fracture of the femoral neck
torn ACL: when leg is hyperextended
Sprain: stretching or tearing of ligaments
|
Structure & composition of muscle |
epimysium, perimysium, endomysium, tendon, aponeurosis
|
Thick filaments |
Consist of bundles of many myosin protein molecules
|
Thin filaments |
two strands of actin protein twisted around each other to form a helical shape
|
Neuromuscular junction |
one per muscle fiber
specific location where muscle fiber is innervated by a motor neuron |
Action potential |
a rapid rise (depolarization) and fall (repolarization) in the charge of the membrane |
Resting membrane potential |
the electrical charge difference when a cell is at rest |
Channels involved |
voltage-gated Na+ channels, voltage-gated K+ channels |
Wernicke area |
speech & language |
Primary visual cortex |
vision |
Gnostic area |
integrates all information being processed |
Prefrontal cortex |
involved with higher intellectual functions |
Neurons |
excitable cells that initiate & transmit electrical signals |
Synapse |
junction where a neuron connects to another neuron or an effector |
Gray matter |
made of neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons |
White matter |
consists of myelinated axons |
Cells of CNS |
glial cells
myelin sheath is formed by oligodendrocytes |
Cells of PNS |
myelin sheath is formed by Schwann cells |
Receptive segment |
binding of neurotransmitter
production of graded potential
|
Initial segment |
summation of graded potentials
invitation of action potential |
Conductive segment |
propagation of action potential
|
Transmissive segment |
action potential causes release of neurotransmitter |
Sensory pathway |
ascending toward brain
Signals for proprioception, touch, temperature, pressure, pain
|
Motor pathway |
descending from brain
Control effectors such as skeletal muscles |
REM sleep |
brain is active
25% of sleep time
important for consolidation of memories |
Non-REM sleep |
slower frequency brain waves
75% of sleep time
important for growth, rest, energy conservation |
Autonomic nervous system |
regulates subconscious processes
maintains homeostasis
responds to input from visceral sensory components
|
Parasympathetic division |
maintains homeostasis at rest
cranial nerves: Oculomotor, facial, glossopharnygeal, vagus
rest and digest |
Sympathetic division |
maintain homeostasis during exercise and emergencies, fight or flight
|
Cooperative effects |
-Parasympathetic activity causes vasodilation in external
genitalia
-Sympathetic activity causes ejaculation/reflex vaginal contractions
|
Antagonistic effects |
-Parasympathetic activity slows heart rate
-Sympathetic activity increases heart rate
|
Cholinergic receptors |
nicotinic- found on cell bodies & dendrites of all ganglionic neurons & walls of adrenal medulla cells
muscarinic: in all target organs of parasympathetic division
|
Adrenergic receptors |
alpha and beta receptors
|
Tactile receptors |
mechanoreceptors located in the skin & mucous membranes |
Phasic receptors |
Adapt rapidly
Only respond to new stimuli
E.g., pressure receptors |
General senses |
pain, temperature, touch, pressure, vibration, and proprioception
receptors distributed throughout the body |
Special senses |
Smell, taste, vision, hearing, equilibrium
|
Tonic receptors |
Limited adaptation
Respond continuously
E.g., head position receptors in inner ear; all pain receptors |
Gustation |
sense of taste
|
taste buds |
onion‐shaped organs housing taste receptors |
Filiform papillae |
short & spiked
no taste buds
help manipulate food
|
Fungiform papillae |
mushroom‐shaped
Each contains a few taste buds
Located on tip and sides of tongue |
Vallate papillae |
Largest, least numerous
Contain most of the taste buds |
Foliate papillae |
leaflike ridges
Not well developed
House a few taste buds in early childhood |
Sclera |
whites of the eye
provides shape & protection
|
Cornea |
convex transparent structure at front of eye |
Choroid |
Contains many blood vessels to nourish retina
Houses melanocytes (melanin absorbs extra light) |