PSYX 100S: Chapter 8
40 Cards in this Set
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Cognition
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refers broadly to mental processes or thinking
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Language
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symbols that covey meaning, plus rules for combining those symbols, that can be used 2 genarate an infinite variety of messgs.
1. language is symbolic - writtn words 2 represent objects, actions, & ideas.
2. language is generative-limited # of symbols can b combined in an infinite v…
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Phonemes
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the smallest speech unit in a language that can be distinguished perceptually
Ex. the letter a is pronounced differently in the woeds father, had, call and take.
Each pronnunciations corresponds to a different phoneme
Different languages use different groups of about 20-80 phon…
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Morphemes
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are the smallest units of meaning in a language
Approx. 50,000 English morpheme, which include roots words as well as prefixes and suffixes.
Ex. single morphemes; fire, guard, and friends
the word unfriendly consists of three morphemes: the root word friend, the prefix un, and …
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Semantics
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is the area jof language concerned w/ understanding the meaning of words and word combinations.
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Syntax
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is a system of rules that specify how words can be arranged into sentences.
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fast mapping
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the process by which children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure.
children often add words like tank, board, and tape to their vocabularies after their fist encouncter w/objects that illustrate these concepts
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Overextension
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occurs when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a wider set of objects or action than it is meant to.
Ex. a child might use the word ball for nating round - or - anges, apples, even the moon
overextension usally appear in children speech btween 1 and 2 1/2
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Underextension
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occurs when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects or actionthat it is meant to.
Ex. a child might use the word doll to refer only to single, favorite doll
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Telegraphic speech
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consists mainly of content words; articles, prepositions, and other less critical words are omitted.
Ex. child says, "give doll" rather than "please give me the doll."
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mean length of utterance (MLU)
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the average length of younsters' spoken statements (measured in morphemes.)
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Overregularization
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occur when grammatical rules are incorrectly generalized to irregular cases where they do not apply.
Ex. children will say things like "the girl goed home" or "I hitted the ball."
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Metalinguistic awareness
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the ability to reflect on the use of languages
children begin to recognize that statements may have a literal meaning and an implied meaning.
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Irony
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involves conveying an implied meaning that is the opposite of a statement's literal meaning
Ex. On learnign that he got a D on an exam, a student says, "Oh that's jsut great."
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Sarcasm
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a variation on irony in which there is a caustic element directed at a particular person
Ex. commenting on bludner by her husband a woman says "My husband, the genius."
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Bilingualism
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the acquisition of two languages that use different speech sounds, vocabulary, and grammatical rules.
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Language acquisition device (LAD)
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an innate mechanism or process that facilitates the learning of language
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Liguistic relativity
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the hypothesis that one;s language determines the nature of one's thought
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Problem solving
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refers to active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable.
One must go beyond the info. given to overcome obstacles and reach a goal.
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problem of inducing structure
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require people to discoverthe relations among numbers, words, symbols, or ideas. the series completion problems and the analogy problems
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problem of arrangement
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require people to arrange the parts of a problem in a way that satisfies soem the parts of a problem in a way that satisfies some criterion.
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Problem trasformation
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require people to carry out sequence of transformations in order to reach a specific goal.
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functional fixedness
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the tendency to percieve an item only in terms of its most common use.
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Mental set
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exist when people persist in usin problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past.
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Insight
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occurs when people suddenly discover the correct solution to a problem after struggling with it for a while.
1. how people structure the problem, 2. how they apply prior knowledge or 3. how much they need to juggle info. in working memory.
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problem space
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refer to the set of possible pathways to a solution cosidered by the problem solver.
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Trial and error
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involves trying possible solutions and discarding those that are in error until one works.
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Algorithm
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a methodical, step-by-step procedure for trying all possible alternatives in seaching for a solution to a problem
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heuristic
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a guiding priciple or "rule of thumb" used in solving problems or making decisions
Ex. a heuristic allows you to discard some alternatives while pursuing selected alternatives that appear more likely to lead to a solution
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Hillclimbing heuristic
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which entails selecting the alternatives at each choice point that appears to lead most directly to one's goal.
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Decision making
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involves evaluating alternatives and making choices among them
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Simon's theory of bounded rationality
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asserts that people tend to use simple strategies in decision making that focus on lonly a few facets of available options and often result in "irrational" decision that are less than optimal
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Risky decision making
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involves making choices under coditions of uncertainty.
Uncertainty exist when people don;t know what will happen.
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Availability heuristic
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involves basing the estimated probability of an event of the ease with which relevant instances come to mind.
Ex. you may estimate the divorce rate by recalling the number of divorces among your friends' parents.
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The representative heuristic
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involves basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of the events
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Conjunction fallacy
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occurs when peopel estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone.
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dual-process theories
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people depend on two different modes or systems of thinking when making decisions.
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gambler fallacy
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the belief that the odds of a chance events increase if the events hasn't occured recently
Ex. people believe that the laws of probabilty should yield fair results.
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confirmation bias
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the tendency to only seek information that is likely to support one's decisions and beliefs
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framing
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decisions issues are posed or how choices are structured
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PSYX 100S: Chapter 8