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PSYC 4600: TEST 4
What was the Gestalt Revolt?
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-As behaviorism was flourishing in the U.S., Gestalt psychology was gaining popularity in Germany
-Gestalt psychologists accepted the value of consciousness while criticizing the attempt to reduce it to atoms or elements
-Gestalt psychologists maintained that when sensory elements are combined, the elements form a new pattern or configuration
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Antecedents of Gestalt Psychology
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Kant; Mach; Phenomenology
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Kant
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¡Perceived mental states that appear to be composed of bits actively form a coherent experience
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Mach
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Mach
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Phenomenology
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¡A doctrine based on an unbiased description of immediate experience just as it occurs
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phi phenomenon
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¡A doctrine based on an unbiased description of immediate experience just as it occurs
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perceptual constancy
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the idea that your past experiences lead you to see the world in a way that is difficult to change.
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The Changing Zeitgeist in Physics
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—Physicists were describing fields and organic wholes
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—Atomism or elementism is influential in the establishment of psychology
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—Results à Gestalt psychologists’ revolutionary ways of looking at perception
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Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization
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Laws that explain the regularities in the way people come to the perceptual interpretations of stimuli. Emphasis is on the whole structures rather than on the detection/assembly of parts of structures
Proximity; continuity; similarity; closure; simplicity;figure/ground
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Kohler's Productive Thinking in Humans 1 (3)
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THINKING IS DONE IN TERMS OF WHOLES
-the learner regards the situation as a whole
-the teacher must present the situation as a whole
-the whole problem must dominate the parts
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isomorphism
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Gestalt
The doctrine that there is a correspondence between psychological or conscious experience and the underlying brain experience.
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Describe the spread of Gestalt psychology in the mid-1920's to the mid-1930's
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Established movement in Germany
1930's: Hitler comes to power, Wertheimer, Koffka, & Kohler leave for the US
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gestalt criticism of behaviorism
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emphasis on breaking behavior to observable stimulus-response units and ignoring the context of behavior
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gestalt criticism of behaviorism
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Kurt Lewin - system using the concept of fields of force to explain behavior in terms of one's field of social influences.
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Zeigarnik effect
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The tendency to recall uncompleted tasks more easily than completed tasks.
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Criticisms of Gestalt Psychology
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unscientific approach (not enough control, accepting some things w o explaining, qualitative and exploratory, no stats)
too theoretical
focus on consciousness
terms vague theories hard to test
insight research challenged
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Contributions of Gestalt Psychology
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- continued interest in conscious experience in spite of behaviorism
- alternative to reductionistic - behavioristic approach
- their phenomenological approach influence can be seen in humanistic movement
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Max Wertheimer
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Founded Gestalt psychology: beginning with visual illusion--phi phenomenon
wholeness experience of the illusion
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Kurt Koffka
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Coined "perception". Co-founder of Gestalt Psychology. "Perceptions of Psychology"
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Wolfgang Kohler
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Most prolific promoter of the Gestalt movement. His books became standard work on Gestalt Psychology. —Suggested Gestalt theory was a general law of nature that should be extended to all the sciences. Insight based on study of apes.
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Kurt Lewin
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Field theory and Zeigarnik effect
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Freud's Development of Psychoanalysis
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—Freud: Three great shocks to the collective human ego:
Copernicus: Heliocentrism
Darwin: Evolution
Freud: Unconscious
—Psychoanalysis was distinct from mainstream psychological thought in goals, subject matter, and methods
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Antecedent Influences on Psychoanalysis
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Darwin - Unconscious mental processes and conflicts, significance of dreams, hidden symbolism of certain behaviors, and importance of sexual arousal; —Catharsis; Monadology; Johann Friedrich Herbart; Fechnar
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Monadology
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Leibnitz’s theory of psychic entities, called monads, which are similar to perceptions
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Johann Friedrich Herbart
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Theorizing of a threshold of consciousness; conflict between ideas for conscious realization
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Fechner
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Suggested the mind is analogous to an iceberg; great impact on Freud
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Catharsis |
The process of reducing or eliminating a complex by recalling it to conscious awareness and allowing it to be expressed
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Early ideas about psychopathology
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Hebrews, Babylonians, Christianity, 15thc inquisition
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Sigmund Freud
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—Freud’s adult personality characteristics: Self-confidence; Ambition; Desire for achievement; Dreams of glory and fame; Free association
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Anna O.
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- Pseudonym for patient treated by Breuer
- Said to have hysteria
- Treatment said to mark beginning of psychoanalysis
- Transference: believed she was pregnant w/ Breuer's baby, showed signs of pregnancy
- Each symptom disappeared when traced back to first occasion
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—Dream analysis
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A psychotherapeutic technique involving the interpretation of dreams to uncover unconscious conflict
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Psychoanalytic Treatment
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Makes clients conscious of repressed problems & help them to resolve those problems so the personality can be healthy and whole
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Instincts
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—Mental representations of internal stimuli that motivate personality and behavior
Death instinct (thanatos)
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Libido |
The psychic energy that drives a person toward pleasurable thoughts and behaviors
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Anxiety
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Functions as a warning that the ego is being threatened
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Defense mechanisms
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Behaviors that represent unconscious denials or distortions of reality but which are adopted to protect the ego against anxiety
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Mechanism (Determinism)
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Construes humans as machine like, having no capacity for choice and self motivated behavior.
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Supported validation of Psychoanalysis
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÷Characteristics of the oral and anal personality types
÷Castration anxiety
÷The notion that dreams reflect emotional concerns
÷Aspects of the Oedipus complex in boys
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Lack of scientific validation of psychoanalysis.
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÷Symbolism of dreams*
÷ The Oedipus complex and male identification with father
÷ Women’s issues with body image
÷Identity and superego
÷Personality formation by age five
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Criticisms of Psychoanalysis
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—Conclusions draw from case studies of patients
Lacks validity and generalizability
—Data collection was unsystematic and uncontrolled
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—Freud may have used suggestion, or more coercive procedures, to elicit or implant such memories when no actual seduction had occurred
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Small and unrepresentative sample of people
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josef breuer
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Anna o. close friend of freud. used hypnosis. treated hysteria.
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Jean-Martin Charcot
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-Hypnotist-created physical paralysis and could take it away. This is what he was famous for. He did not invent it, but he brought it back.
-This demonstrated the connection of the mind and the body to Freud.
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Contributions of Psychoanalysis
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—Psychoanalysis based instead on an intuitive appearance of plausibility
——Tremendous impact on popular culture and academic psychology
——Led psychology to revise thinking about the contributing factors to mental illness
——Freudian psychoanalysis became a vital force in modern psychology
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Factions of Psychoanalysis
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Anna Freud; Melanie Klein; Karen Horney; Carl Jung; Alfred Adler; Abraham Maslow; Carl Rogers; Neo-Freudians.
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Neo-Freudians
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loyalists who called for an expansion of the concept of the ego. Ego seen as having a more extensive role
The ego was more independent of the id, possessed its own energy not derived from the id, and had functions separate from the id
Suggested that the ego was free of the conflict produced when id impulses pressed for satisfaction
Less emphasis on biological forces as influences on personality
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Anna Freud
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—Devoted her life to the development and extension of psychoanalytic theory and its application to the treatment of emotionally disturbed children; Child analysis
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Melanie Klein
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—Theory focused on the interpersonal relationships with instinct-satisfying objects
Child needs to break free from the primary object (the mother) in order to establish a strong sense of self and to develop relations with other objects (people)
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Carl Jung
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Analytic Psychology. Sex played small role in human motivation. Libido was generalized life energy of which sex was only a part. We're shaped by hopes, past, goals, dreams. Personality wasn't fully determined by experiences during first five years of childhood.
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The Collective Unconscious
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—Two levels of the unconscious mind:
The personal unconscious
÷The reservoir of material that once was conscious but has been forgotten or suppressed
The collective unconscious
÷The deepest level of the psyche which contains inherited experiences of human and prehuman species
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—Archetypes
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Inherited tendencies within the collective unconscious that dispose a person to behave similarly to ancestors who confronted similar situations
÷Anima/animus
÷Shadow
÷Self
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Introversion and Extroversion
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Carl Jung
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Social Psychological Theories
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—Move away from purely biological framework of physics and biology
—Emerging fields: Anthropology, sociology, and social psychology
Supported the proposition that people are products of social forces and institutions
Freud’s work in neuroses is not universal
Much human behavior stems from social conditioning rather than from actions taken to satisfy biological needs
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Alfred Adler
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individual psychology; social interest; complex; —Drive for superiority or perfection is universal
—People have the capacity to determine our own personality as a unique style of life
—Birth order: There is a relationship between birth order and personality because of how one is treated in relation to others in the family
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Individual Psychology
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Adler; theory of personality that incorporates social as well as biological factors.
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Social interest
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Innate potential to cooperate with other people to achieve personal and societal goals.
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style of life
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in Adler's view, a technique for dealing with one's inadequacies and inferiorities and for gaining social status
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Karen Horney
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in Adler's view, a technique for dealing with one's inadequacies and inferiorities and for gaining social status
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Humanistic psychology
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An approach that emphasizes personal growth, resilience, and the achievement of human potential
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Three personality types of neurotic needs
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The compliant personality
The detached personality
The aggressive personality
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Idealized self-image
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Karen Horney; provides the person with a false picture of the personality or self.
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Self-Actualization
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the reaching of one's individual potential
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Major Psychologists of the Humanistic Perspective
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Carl Rogers
Abraham Maslow
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Abraham Maslow
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—Driven to understand the greatest achievements of which we are capable
Studied a small sample of psychologically outstanding people to determine how they differed from those of average or normal mental health
Self-actualization
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Carl Rogers
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—Person-centered therapy:
Based on a singular motivational factor
Unconditional positive regard: the unconditional love of a mother for her infant
Responsibility for improvement on the person or client rather than on the therapist
Personality is shaped by the present and how we consciously perceive it
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—Qualities of psychologically healthy persons:
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Openness to, and a freshness of appreciation of, all experience
Tendency to live fully in every moment
Ability to be guided by their instincts rather than by reason or the opinions of others
Sense of freedom in thought and action
High degree of creativity
Continual need to maximize their potential
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The Fate of Humanistic Psychology
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—Humanistic psychologists offered a definition of psychology distinct from the other two forces in the field (behaviorism and psychoanalysis)
—Separated from mainstream psychology:
Most humanistic psychologists were in clinical practice and not at universities
Timing of the humanist movement was poor
—Strengthened the idea within psychoanalysis that people can shape their lives
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Positive Psychology
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—Recent development from humanist psychology
—Focus on happiness, excellence, and optimal human functioning subjective well-being; the science of happiness, love and life
—Research on satisfaction, interventions for enhanced well-being, leisure, peak performance, positive affectivity, emotional creativity, optimism, hope theory, goal-setting for life and happiness
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Schools of Thought in Perspective
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—Each school
Drew strength from opposition to an earlier school
Prospered for a time
Became part of mainstream psychology
Was replaced by a new school
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Structuralism
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Independent science
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Functionalism |
Applies findings to virtually every aspect of modern life; utilitarian attitude changed psychology
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Gestalt Psychology
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Support for wholes; interest in consciousness; influenced clinical psychology, learning, perception, social psychology, and thinking.
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Behaviorists and psychoanalysts
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stand firmly opposed to each other and are still evolving today.
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New movements
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cognitive psychology; evolutionary psychology
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Cognitive Movement
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Oppose the strict behaviorists and promote studying cognitive processing through computer-information processing models.
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Antecedent influences to Cognitive Movement
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E. R. Guthrie; E. C. Tolman; Gestalt Psychology; Jean Piaget; changing zeigeist physics
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E. R. Guthrie
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psychologists describe stimuli in perceptual or cognitive terms so meaningful for responding organism
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E. C. Tolman
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recognized the importance of cognitive variables; decline of stimulus-response approach
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Founding cognitive psychology
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Long process; no single charismatic leader; interest was pragmatic (simply getting on with the work of redefining psychology);
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George Miller
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influenced by statistical learning theory, information theory, and computer-based models of the mind. the magic number 7
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George Miller
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Language, memory, perception, concept formation, thinking, and developmental psychology
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Ulric Neisser
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—1967: published Cognitive Psychology
—1976: published Cognition and Reality
Expressed his dissatisfaction with collecting data in laboratories instead of real life settings.
—Insisted that cognitive psychologists should be able to apply their findings to practical problems
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Turing Test
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persuading a subject that the computer with which he or she is communicating is really another person, not a machine.
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Cognitive Focus
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process of knowing rather than merely responding to stimuli; how the mind structures or organizes experiences; individual actively and creatively arranges the stimuli received from the environment. Important factors: mental process and events, not stimulus-response connection.
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Cognitive Neuroscience
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Goal: Determine “how brain functions give rise to mental activity” and to “correlate specific aspects of information processing with specific brain regions"
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The role of introspection in cognitive neuroscience
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quantify introspective reports to render them more objective and amenable to statistical analyses; ¡Subjects retrospectively evaluate the subjective experiences that occurred during an earlier period when they were asked to respond to a given stimulus. Most frequently used research method in contemporary psychology
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The role of introspection in cognitive neuroscience
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Unconscious is able to accomplish many functions that were once thought to require deliberation, intention, and conscious awareness; Unlike the unconscious Freud suggested
The new unconscious: More rational than emotional and is involved in the first stage of cognition in responding to a stimulus
Studying nonconscious processing: Stimuli are presented below the subjects’ levels of conscious awareness
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Animal Cognition
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—Developed from comparative psychology
—Cognitive movement restored consciousness to animals as well
Animal memory has been shown to be complex and flexible
Animals can perform a variety of cognitive functions
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Antecedent Influences on Evolutionary Psychology
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Charles Darwin; William James; the cognitive revolution; sociobiology.
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