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Study Guide: Final Exam
Archaeology |
• The Study of the human past through material remains o Origins of: • Domestication • Sedentism • Agriculture • Civilization |
3 major goals of archaeology |
o Reveal the form of the past o Discover the function of the past o Understand the cultural processes |
Artifacts |
o Material items that humans have manufactured or modified |
Cultural Features |
o Nonportable remnants from the past, such as house walls or ditches. |
Early Homo Sapiens Sapiens |
• Simple foraging, hunting (rely on collecting plants and the hunting of animals) – started with homo erectus • Big game hunting • Individual hunting • Fishing • Gathering • Nomadic to semi nomadic |
Clovis Tradition |
• 13-12,000 years ago • defined by a single point- specialized for big game hunting |
Earliest Major Human cultural Achievements |
Art Domestication Sedentism Civilization • A society within an extensive social hierarchy • Cities • Social classes • Government |
Rise of Sedentism and Domestication |
• Old world- Natufians o Sedentism first o Changes in climate and environment • New World- archaic cultures o Domestication first |
Neolithic Change |
o Food production o Domestication of plants and animals |
The Middle East (domestication of...) |
o Wheat o Barley o Beer |
Sub-Saharan Africa |
o Rice o Grains o Sorghum |
China |
o Different rice o Water buffalo o Pigs o Millett o Chickens o Dogs |
Cultural Mexico |
o Beans o Squash |
South Central Andes |
o Potatoes o Beans o Squash o Animals |
Plants process of Domestication: Wild |
• Small • Grains fall • Brittle rachis • Weak joint • In natural range • Normal pollen |
Plants process of Domestication: Domesticated |
• Larger • Grains stay on ear when ripe • Tougher joint • Outside normal environment • Changes in pollen |
Animals process of Domestication: Wild |
• Large • In natural environment • Normal sex/age ratio |
Animals process of Domestication: Domesticated |
• Outside natural range • Morphological changes • Increased population • Abnormal sex/age ratio |
Plant Domestication: Accidental |
• Most productive plants get selected for • Garbage heaps |
Plant Domestication: Intentional |
Purposefully plant wild varieties • Select for wanted traits |
Animal Domestication: Accidental |
• Earliest-dogs |
Animal Domestication: Intentional |
• Mobile food source • Cattle, sheep, pigs, goats |
Earliest Domestication |
o 10,000-6,000 years ago • Few domesticated animals • Earliest crops were • Squash • Maize • Potatoes • Manioc |
Early Farming and food production lead to... |
o Early farming communities • In the Middle East • Jericho • In Mesoamerica • Oaxaca o Higher Food yields |
Why did humans shift from foraging to sedentary lifestyles? |
o Sedentism attractive • Plants and animals available today o Middle East had large area with • Stable advantageous climate • High diversity of species o Except this scenario did NOT happen in the Americas • Pacific northwest |
Domestication and Sedentism Disadvantages: |
• Population change: Large population increase • Shift in the diet: Farmers rely on small number of food types • Insecure food supply: Greater susceptibility to disasters • Increase in disease: Greater concentrations of people • Environmental degradation: Agriculture changes the environment • Increase in labor: Longer work day for farmers |
Domestication and Sedentism Advantages: |
• Farmers need less land than a hunter-gatherer • Farmers have a more predictable food source • Farming is less damaging to the body: Less violent deaths, Longer life-spans • Sedentism means new opportunities for social complexity: More chances to socialize |
2 important factors for explaining early cultural changes |
o Population pressure • Supporting larger numbers o Human Socialibility • Greater social organization |
Rise of civilization: shifting from egalitarianism |
oo No large social differenes • Inherited social differences • To ranked societies • Chiefdoms • Single leader, a chief • 7000 bp, middle east • 3200 bp, Mesoamerica |
Rise of civilization: shifting from ranked |
o Inherited social differences o To state societies • A form of complex social and political organization • Government and social divisions • 5500 bp, middle east • 200 bp, Mesoamerica |
Rise of civilization: development of... |
o social classes • social differences based on economics and power o social stratification • unequal access to power, wealth, or prestige o specialists • making a living doing something other than producting food |
Rise of complex societies Theories |
o Hydraulic systems o Long distance trade o Circumscription, population, war o Religion o Charismatic leaders |
Rise of complex societies Theories |
• NO single reason or cause exists • Each region had multiple reasons o Interrelationship of environment and culture o Different people made different |
Attributes of early states |
• Regional Territory: Organization of a region of states • Farming economics: Basis for all early states, People primarily involved in subsistence (growing own food) • Tribute and taxation: Funds received for the states • Stratified: Different hierarchies of people types • Building programs : Defined by large public ceremonial architecture • Record keeping systems: Way to record things: economic exchanges, political events, taxes and tribute, etc |
Monumental Architecture |
o Architectural constructions of a greater than human scale o Religious temples- used over and over again after dedicated to life of the ruler |
Artifacts |
o Sets of artifacts indicating particular social activities |
Burials |
o Features associated with the internment of bodies |
Settlement Patterns |
o The distribution of sites and people across the landscape |
Earliest development of civilization |
Middle East o Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia o First complex societies about 7000 bp |
Development of the Indus Valley |
o The setting of mohenjo-daro began o Large public structures o Organized neighborhoods o Very large public bathing facility o Public toilets |
Invention of the Wheel |
o Toys o Not a real use of the wheel |
Invention of a writing system |
o Indus script o Undeciphered |
Why early states collapsed? |
o Warfare o Prolonged drought o Disease o Famine o Environmental change o Social transitions |
Archaeology is... |
• Understanding human cultural past |
Technology and Environment with Archaeology |
o How human societies interact most directly with the natural environment |
Social Systems |
o Studying the construction, or o Socially gendered roles o Political organization: How power was channeled and who controlled production and distribution of wealth o Economic organization: How resources were allocated or distributed within a society o Ceramics: tell us a lot about older humans o Cosmological and symbolic systems: Studying how past cultures and societies constructed their world views |
Pseudo archaeology |
o A body of popularized accounts that use real or imaginary archaeological evidence • Indiana jones |
Looting |
• Illegal vandalism and plundering of sites |
Collecting |
• People go to sites and dig as a family outing • Arrowhead collecting |
Cultural Resource Management |
o Recovering information and protecting sites from development o Salvage work- collecting information when it first starts |
Responsibility of Archaeologists |
o Modern issues of skeletal and burial analy sis and different ethnic groups • NAGPRA |
Cultural Anthropology |
• Study of modern human society and culture o Patterns in behavior, thought, and perceptions. o Through active participation • Patterns of subsistence • Economic systems • Social and political organization • Kinship and marriage • Myth, ritual, religion, and art • Globalism |
Subsistence |
Doing what is necessary to sustain human life o Food, clothing, shelter o Adaptive strategies • A groups system of economic activity |
Economic Activity |
• The extraction, production, exchange, storage, and consumption of material things of life |
Foraging |
o Hunter-gatherers • Mobile, Rely on natural resources, Band societies, 100 or less, kinship social organization o flexible • egalitarian social systems, age and gender, Kung! Bushmen, Inuit, Northwest coast Indians |
Horticulture |
o Subsistence farmers • Simple tools, Fields not permanent, Slash and burn, Shifting o Farmers • Swidden farming, Plots lie fallow , Slash and burn |
Agriculture |
o Intensive farming • More complex tools, Domesticated animals, Mechanized, Irrigating, Terracing, Eliminating pests, Cost and benefits, Greater yield, Dependable, Higher population, Intensification, Sedentary, Specialized |
The Cultivation Continuum |
• Horticulturalists → Industrial Agriculturalists |
Pastoralism |
o Subsistence Herders • Breeding and managing herds of domesticated grazing animals o Use animals directly o Mobile • Pastoral nomadism • Transhumance |
Industrialism |
o Industrial production • Factory production • Capitolism • Socialist production |
Mode of Production |
• Way of organizing production • Nonindustrial vs industrial Economic Systems Balancing demands, supply, and needs |
Means of Production |
o Major productive resources o Land, labor, technology o Non industrial societies • More closely connected • Linked through social and kin organizations • Less specialized o Industrial society • Production is not owned by the laborer • Less connected |
2 Economic Anthropology questions: |
o what motivates people in different cultures? o How are economies organized in different societies? • Using cross-cultural perspectives |
Maximizing |
• Trying to gain the largest margin of individual profit |
Economizing |
• Rational allocation of scare resources to particular uses |
Alternative Ends |
• Subsistence funds • Replacement funds • Social funds • Ceremonial funds • Rent funds |
Distribution and Exchange |
o Organization of economies • How economic systems work |
3 Economic Systems: Market Principle |
• Exchange of goods and services with a standardized value • Dominant in north America • Distribution and exchange • Organization of economies o How economic systems work |
3 Economic Systems: Redistribution |
• Centrally redistributed goods throughout a community • Potlatching • Distribution and exchange • Organization of economies o How economic systems work |
3 Economic Systems: Reciprocity |
• The exchange of goods and services of equal value • 3 types • generalized- unequal • balanced- equal • negative- one sided • Coexistance of exchange principles |
Potlatching |
o exchange of goods Among tribes of the Northwest coast of North America o Big community celebration o Conspicuous consumption? |
Kinship |
o Organizing human relationships of interdependence o Basic human social organization o How individuals relate to others |
Family |
• Two or more people related by blood, marriage, or adoption kinship starts with family |
Nuclear Family |
• Mom, dad, kids o Impermanent o Product of individual life-cycles • The nuclear family is not a universal human trait o Other patterns serve the same functions o Nayar-India • Tarawad household • Husbands live in their mothers household, but sons do |
Extended Family |
• Grandparents, aunts, uncles, etc o Can be families of procreation and orientation • Lower economic classes |
Family Orientation |
• In which one is born into |
Family of Procreation |
• Created through marriage |
Descent Group |
o A permanent social unit whose members claim common ancestry |
3 ways to define descent group: Unilineal |
• Relationships are recognized through one line of descent, whether mothers or fathers kin lines • Matrilineal o Kinship through mothers family • Patrilineal o Kinship through fathers family |
3 ways to define descent group: Ambilineal |
• People can choose to recognize relationships through either the mothers or the fathers lines |
3 ways to define descent group: Bilateral |
• Relationships are recognized through both lines of descent |
3 forms of descent groups: Lineage |
o A descent group with a common known ancestor o Patrilineages • The male line • Daughters leave • Patrilocal o Matrilineages |
3 forms of descent groups: Clan |
o Members believe they have a common ancestor • May not specify the genealogical links o Made up of several lineages o Long historical background o Ancestor is often a mythical figure • Nonhuman….. |
3 forms of descent groups: Bilateral Kindred |
o Membership is based on recognizing close relatives on the mothers and fathers side |
Kinship Calculations |
• classification systems based on how different cultures perceive their social worlds • no two individuals will have the same kinship system • however general patterns do exist |
Parallel Cousins |
• The children of a persons parents same sex siblings |
Cross Cousins |
• The children of a persons parents opposite sex siblings |
4 ways of classifying kinship: |
o Lineal terminology o Bifurcate merging terminology o Generational terminology o Bifurcate collateral terminology |