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PSYC 101: Test 2
focus on the learning of association through classical cond. and operant cond. (rewards and punishments)
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Behavioral Psychologists
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are interested in the more complex type of learning involved with human memory
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cognitive psychologists
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UCS --> ____
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UCR
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NS
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does not elicit to-be-conditioned response
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NS before UCS -->
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UCR
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CS (former NS) --> ___
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CR
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delayed conditioning
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offset of CS (bell chime) is delayed until after the UCS is presented so that the two stimuli occur at the same time
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trace conditioning
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period of time between the offset of the CS and the onsest of the UCS when neither stimulus is preset (there is a "memory trace")
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which type of conditioning (delayed or trace) is the most effective for classical conditioning?
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Delayed Conditioning
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acquisition
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process of acquiring a new response (CR to a CS)
strength of CR increases
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extinction
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the disappearance of the CR when the UCS no longer follows the CS
strength of CR decreases during extinction
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spontaneous recovery
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the recovery observed following rest intervals continues to decrease until it is minimized
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stimulus generalization
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giving the CR to a stimulus similar to the CS
more similar - stronger
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stimulus discrimination
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learning to give the CR only to the CS or only to a small set of very similar stimuli including the CS
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discrimination training
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you present many different stimuli numerous times, but the UCS follows only one CS
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operant conditioning
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learning to associate behaviors with their consequences
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behaviors that are ___ will be strengthened
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reinforced
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behaviors that are ___ will be weakened
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punished
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"operant" meaning ...
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organism needs to "operate" on the environment to bring about consequences from which to learn
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the law of effect
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thorndike's law - states that any behavior that results in satisfying consequences repeats and behavior with unsatisfying results stop
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reinforcer
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stimulus that increases the probability of a prior response
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reinforcement
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process by which the probability of a response is increased by the presentation of a reinforcer following the response
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punisher
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stimulus that decreases the probability of response
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punishment
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process by which the probability of a response is decreased by presenting a punisher
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positive (terms of reinforcement)
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means a stimulus is presented
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negative (terms of reinforcement)
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stimulus is removed
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positive reinforcement
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an appetitive (reinforcer) stimulus is presented (e.g., praise for good work)
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positive punishment
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an aversive (punisher) is presented (e.g., scolding for doing poor work)
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negative reinforcement
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an aversive stimulus is removed (e.g., removing a painful stimulus - you don't have to do your chores if you get an A on your test)
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negative punishment
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an appetitive stimulus is removed (taking away toys from a kid)
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primary reinforcer
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innate reinforcers since birth (need for food and water) - not always reinforcing
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secondary reinforcer
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not innately reinforcing, but gains reinforcing properties through learning (good grades, money)
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shaping
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when an animal is trained to make a particular response by reinforcing successively closer approximations to the desired respsonse
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cumulative record
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a record of the total # of responses over time
-visual depiction of the rate of responding
-steeper slope = response rate is faster
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acquisition
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refers to strengthening of reinforced operant response
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extinction
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disappearance of the operant response when it's no longer reinforced
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spontaneous recovery
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temporary recovery of the operant response following a break during extinction training
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discriminative stimulus
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one that has to be present for the operant response to be reinforced
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stimulus discrimination
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when a rat learns to hit the lever to get the reinforcement only when the light is on, not off
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stimulus generalization
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giving the operant response in the presence of stimuli similar to the discriminative stimulus
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partial schedules of reinforcement
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cumulative record
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ratio schedule
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based on the # of responses made
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interval schedule
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based on the amount of time that has elapsed
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fixed schedule
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the # of responses required for a ratio schedule or the amount of time needed for an intervl schedule is fixed
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variable schedule
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the # of responses required for a ratio schedule and amount of time for an interval schedule varies on each trial
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fixed ratio schedule
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a reinforcer is delivered after a fixed number of responses are made (a rat has to press a lever 10 times before receiving food - reinforcer_
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variable ratio schedule
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the # of responses it takes to obtain a reinforcer varies on each trial but avgs out to be a certain # over trials (slot machine payoffs)
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fixed interval schedule
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a reinforcer delivered after the first response is given once a set interval of time has elapsed ( periodic exams in class, with most studying/behaving right before exam/reinforcer)
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variable interval schedule
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reinforcer is delivered after a different time interval on each trial, but the time intervals over trials avg out to be a set time (pop quizzes)
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___ lead to higher rates of responding than _____
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ratio schedules, interval schedules
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____ lead to fewer breaks (no responding occurring) after reinforcement than ____
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variable schedules, fixed schedules
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with respect to extinction, it will take longer to extinguish a response with a _______ schedule than a _______
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partial-reinforcement, continuous reinforcement
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behaviors from ___ schedule are harder to extinguish
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variable
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what type of schedule leads to the highest rate of responding
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ratio schedule
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what type of schedule leads to behaviors that are the most difficult to extinguish
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variable schedul
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what type of scheduling leads to no breaks/pauses in responding
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variable-interval schedule
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what type of schedule leads to many breaks in responding
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fixed-interval schedule
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motivation
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set of internal and external factors that energize us towards a goal
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drive reduction theory (theory of motivation)
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bodily NEED creates a state of bodily tension called DRIVE, then motivated behavior initiates this drive by obtaining reinforcement to eliminate the need (feel hungry --> want to eat --> find food --> eliminate hunger)
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incentive theory (theory of motivation)
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proposes that we are "pulled" into action by incentives (external environmental stimuli that don't involve drive reduction) - money
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arousal theory (theory of motivation)
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our behavior is motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, which varies among people
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yerkes-dodson law
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increased arousal will aid performance up to a point, after which further arousal impairs performance
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extrinsic motivation
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desire to perform behavior to obtain an external reinforcement or to avoid an external aversive (unsatisfactory) stimulus
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intrinsic motivation
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desire to perform a behavior effectively and for its own sake (the reinforcement is the behavior itself)
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overjustification
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occurs when there is a decrease in an intrinsically motivated behavior after the behavior is extrinsically reinforced (and extrinsic reinforcement discontinued)
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instinctual drift
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tendency of an animal to drift back from learned operant response to an object to an innate, instinctual response (training raccoon to put coins in piggy bank)
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latent learning
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learning that occurs but isn't demonstrated until there is incentive to do so
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observational learning (modeling)
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learning by observing others and imitating their behaviro
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edward tolman
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latent learning
food deprived rats in maze
cognitive map
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albert bandura
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bobo dolls
adults beat dolls, children observed, did the same in confidence
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three stage model of memory
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5 senses (smell, taste...) --> sensory memory --> short term memory --> long term memory
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sensory memory
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set of five temporary storage places (vision, audition, olfaction -smell, touch and taste)
stored until we attend to it, reflect, interpret, and it moves to short term
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iconic memory
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exact copy of visual info
duration: <1 sec
capacity: very large
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temporal integration procedure
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gives two random dot patters at the same time at same location with a brief delay between presentations .. when two patters are integrated, they produce an actual image
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short term memory
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mem stage in which the recognized info from sensory mem enters conciousness
capacity: 7+/-2 chunks of info
duration: 30 seconds
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____ serves as a place to rehearse info so it can be transferred t long term mem
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short term mem
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chunking
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increase STM capacity by grouping elements into meaningful units
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distractor task
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measures the duration of short term memory
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maintenance rehearsal
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to keep information in short term memory (repeating info)
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long term memory
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allows storage of info for a long period of time (permanently) and its capacity is essentially unlimited
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LTM
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explicit (episodic and semantic) and implicit (priming, procedural memory, conditioning)
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explicit memory (aka declarative mem)
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long term mem for factual knowledge and personal experiences - requires conscious recall - two types of explicit mems
1) semantic: facts
2)episodic: personal mems
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implicit mem (aka non-declarative)
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LTM, does not require conscious awareness or declarative statements (most adults: driving a car, walking)
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procedural memories
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can be implicit because they have a physical procedural aspect to them
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priming
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close your eyes and think about the ocean and beaches - exposure to a stimulus influences a response to a later stimulus
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amnesics
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people with severe memory deficits following brain surgery or injury
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brain areas heavily involved in LTM
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medial temporal lobe, hippocampus, parahippocampal cortex, perirhinal cortex, entorhinal cortex
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anterograde amnesia
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inability to learn new explicit info after trauma
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retrograde amnesia
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inability to retrieve explicit info from PRIOR to trauma
usually temporally-graded
pure form is rare
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infantile amnesia
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cannot remember before age 3
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_____ important for formation of implicit memories
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cerebellum
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_____ important for formation of explicit memories
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hippocampus
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recency effect
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caused by recall from STM
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primacy effect
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result of superior recall from LTM of the first few words on list
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memory system processes
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encoding (learn the info) --> storage (retain the info) --> retrieval (access the info)
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automatic processing
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processing that occurs subconsciously and doesn't require attention
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effortful processing
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processing that occurs consciously and requires attention
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levels-of-processing theory
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describes what types of encoding lead to better retrieval
1) physical: how info appears
2) acoustic: how the info sounds
3) semantic: what the info means
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elaborative rehearsal
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rehearsing info by relating new info to info already in LTM
contrasts with maintenance rehearsal
elaborative provides more retrieval cues to facilitate retrieval
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self-reference effect
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easier to remember info that you have related to yourself because such connections provide more retrieval cues and led more meaning to the new info
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cued recall
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cues created by you to help you remember info
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encoding specificity principle
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proposed that the cues present during encoding serve as the best cues for retrieval
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state-dependent memory
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mem that depends upon the relationship of one's physiological state at the time of encoding and at the time of revrieval
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mood-congruence effect
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fact that memory is better for experiences that are congruent with a person's mood at the time
-when we are sad, we can recall sad events a lot easier than when we are happy
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mnemonics
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memory aids that require elaborative rehearsal
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method of loci
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the sequential pieces of info to be remembered are first associated with sequential locations in a very familiar room or location
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peg-word system
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you visually associate the items to be remembered in a jingle you first memorize
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spacing effect (distributed study effect)
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contends that your memory will improve if you study for an exam over an extended period of time rather than just a few days before
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overlearning
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studying material past the point of initial learning and has been demonstrated to aid in retrieval of that info
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line-ups
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successive presentations, not simultateous
use blind administrators
similar filleres
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relearning (aka savings method)
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a measure of the amount of time saved when learning the info for a second time
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encoding failure theory
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sometimes forgetting isn't really forgetting -- the info is never entered into LTM in the first place |
storage decay theory
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suggests that forgetting occurs because of a problem in the storage of the information
--the biological trace of the mem gradually decays over time and the periodic usage of the info will help to maintain it in storage
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cue-dependent theory
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we forget because the cues necessary for retrieval are not available
the info is in mem but we cannot access it
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interference theory
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proposes that other simliar info interferes and makes the forgotten info inaccessible
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proactive interference
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occurs when info you already know makes it hard to retrieve newly learned info
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retroactive inference
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occurs when info you just learned makes it hard to retrieve old information
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changing phone numbers, but all you can think of is your old phone number
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proactive interference
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you're at a huge party and meet so many people, the flood of names makes it hard to remember and you sometimes forget someone's name because of the flooding of info
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retroactive inference
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schemas
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organized frameworks of knowledge about people, objects, and events that tells us what normally happens in a given situation
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false memories
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inaccurate memories that feel as real as accurate ones
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misinformation effect
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which occurs when a memory is distorted by subsequent exposure to misleading info
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pragmatic inferences
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based on knowledge gained through experience
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schema
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knowledge about what is involved in a particular experience (post office, ball game, classroom)
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script
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conception of sequence of actions that occur during a particular experience (going to a restaurant, dentist)
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cognitive interview
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1) start with open-ended questions, ask specifics later
2) let witness tell story without interruption
3) reinstate conditions
4) use reverse order
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thinking
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the processing of info to solve problems, make judgements, and decsions
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well-defined problem
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one with clear specifications of the start state (where you are), goal state (where you want to be), and the processes for reaching the goal state (how to get there)
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ill-defined problem
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problem lacking clear specification of the start state, goal state, or the processes for reaching the goal state
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problem solving (two steps)
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1) interpreting the problem
2) trying to solve the problem
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fixation
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inability to create a new interpretation of a problem
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functional fixedness
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inability to see that an object can have a function other than its typical one
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mental set (block to problem solving)
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tendency to use previously successful solution strategies without considering others that are more appropriate for the current problem
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solution strategies (two)
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1) algorithm
2) heuristic
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algorithm
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a step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct answer to a problem -- mathematical
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heuristic
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solution strategy that seems reasonable given your past experiences with solving problems, especially similar problems
might lead to no answer or incorrect
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anchoring and adjustment heuristic
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uses initial estimate as an anchor and then this anchor is adjusted up or down
--when meeting someone new, your first impression means a lot.
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working backward heuristic
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attempting to solve a problem by working from the goal state, backwards to the start state
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means-ends analysis heuristic
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breaking down the problem into subgoals and working toward decreasing the distance to the goal state by achieving these subgoals
--breaking down a large term paper into smaller chunks
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the representativeness heuristic
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rule of thumb for judging the probability of membership in a category by how well an object resembles that category
--someone likes poetry and reading... are they, a. a hockey fan, or b. an english professor? we can most likely assume it's b. the english professor, from using our judgememt
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the conjunction rule
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states that the likelihood of the overlap of two uncertain events cannot be greater than the likelihood of either of the two events because the overlap is only part of each
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the conjunction fallacy
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occur when we use the representativeness heuristic -- incorrectly judging the overlap of two uncertain events to be more likely than either of the two events
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the gambler's fallacy
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the erroneous belief that a chance process is self-correcting in that an event that has not occurred for a while is more likely to occur (even though that is bullocks)
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the availability heuristic
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the rule of thumb that the more available an event is in our memory, the more probable it is
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overcoming heuristics...
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to overcome the representativeness and availability heuristics, make sure you haven't overlooked relevant probability info and plausible reasons for differential availability
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hypothesis testing
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confirmation bias, illusory correlation, belief perserverance, person-who reasoning
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confirmation bias
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the tendency to seek evidence that confirms one's beliefs
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illusory correlation
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the erroneous belief that two variables are related when they actually aren't (symbols of luck)
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belief perserverance
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tendency to cling to one's beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence
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person-who reasoning
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questioning a well-established finding because you know a person (one instance) who violates the established finding
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Francis galton
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trying to develop an intelligence test for the purpose of eugenics
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eugenics
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selective reproduction to enhance the capacities of the human race
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Binet & Simon
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France - early 20th century - problem of mental retardation when France switched to public education - concept of mental age (age associated with performance) - demonstrates a nurture emphasis on intelligence
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Terman
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used Binet's and Simon's test after revising it for American children - intelligence quotient formula (written by William Stern) - IQ=(mental age/chronological age) * 100
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Weschler
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NYC - adult patients - developed his own test (WAIS - Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) - provides scores for both verbal and performance tests
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psychometric properties
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standardization, reliability, validity
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standardization
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process that allows test scores to be interpreted by providing test norms, must be given to large representative sample of relevant population
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test-retest method
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test is given twice to same sample
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alternate form reliability
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can be assessed if multiple forms of the test are available - researcher gives diff forms of test to same sample at diff times and computes the correlation coefficient
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split-half reliability
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determined by correlating performance of two halves of one given test (the odd and even # items)
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validity
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the extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure or predict what it is supposed to predict
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content validity
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means that the test covers the content that it is supposed to cover
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predictive validity
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means that the test predicts behavior that is related to what is being measured by the test
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if a test is valid it is also ___
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reliable
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a test can be reliable but not always ____
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valid
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Charles Spearman
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intelligence test performance is a function of two types of factors 1) a g factor (general intelligence) and 2) some s factor (specific intellectual abilities such as reasoning)
believed that the g factor is more important
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L.L. Thurstone
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argued for importance of several mental abilities (verbal comprehension, # facility, spatial relations, perceptual speed, word fluency, associative memory, and reasoning)
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factor analysis
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thurstone used this to identify the mental abilities which are really important in relation to intelligence
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Cattell and Hor
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2 types of intelligence
1) fluid intelligence
2) crystallized intelligence
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fluid intelligence
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abstract reasoning, memory, speed of info processing
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crystallized intelligence
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refers to accumulated knowledge and verbal, numerical skills
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howard gardners theory of intelligence
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1) linguistic: language ability (reading, writing)
2) logical-mathematical: math skills
3) spatial: spatial relationships
4) musical: compose and understand music
5) bodily-kinesthetic: body movement and handling things
6) intrapersonal: understanding oneself
7) interpersonal: understanding others
8) naturalist: patterns in nature
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Robert Sternberg
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1) analytical: measured by standardized tests, academics
2) practical: common sense, street smarts
3) creative intelligence: solve novel problems, deal with unusual situations
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Heritability
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an index of the degree of variation of a trait within a given population that is due to heredity
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Caveats
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heritability is a group statistic and not relevant to individual people, nothing to do with differences that have been observed between populations
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the flynn effect
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refers to the fact that in the US, avg intelligence scores have improved steadily over the past century
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In Pavlov's classical conditioning research, a tone was used as the ______, and food inserted in the mouth served as the ______.
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CS; UCS
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In reinforcement, the probability of a behavior ______; in punishment the probability of a behavior ______.
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increases; decreases
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Tolman's research with rats in mazes indicated the occurrence of ______.
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latent learning
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The results of Bandura's “Bobo Doll” studies illustrate ______, and Tolman and Honzik's studies of latent learning indicate the importance of ______ in maze learning by rats
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observational learning; cognitive maps
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Our short-term memory capacity is ______ ± 2 chunks.
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7
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Which of the following leads to the best long-term memory?
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elaborative rehearsal
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Which of the following theories of forgetting argues that the forgotten information was in long-term memory but is no longer available?
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storage decay theory
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The forgetting curve for long-term memory in Ebbinghaus's relearning studies with nonsense syllables indicates that ______.
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the greatest amount of forgetting occurs rather quickly and then it levels off |
The results for the experiment in which word lists were studied on land or underwater and then recalled either on land or underwater provide evidence for ______.
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encoding specificity
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The tendency to think of only the most typical uses of objects in a problem setting is called ______.
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functional fixedness
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In the 2-4-6 problem, participants demonstrate ______ in testing their hypotheses.
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confirmation bias
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Which of the following intelligence theorists emphasized theg factor?
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Spearman
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In the Linda problem, if you judge that it is more likely that Linda is a bank teller and active in the feminist movement than that Linda is a bank teller, you are using the ______ heuristic and committing the ______ fallacy.
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representativeness; conjunction
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