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CU-Boulder PHYS 1120 - Voltage

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V-1 of 9 Voltage ( = Electric Potential ) An electric charge alters the space around it. Throughout the space around every charge is a vector thing called the electric field. Also filling the space around every charge is a scalar thing, called the voltage or the electric potential. Electric fields and voltages are two different ways to describe the same thing. (Note on terminology: The text book uses the term "electric potential", but it is easy to confuse electric potential with "potential energy", which is something different. So I will use the term "voltage" instead.) Voltage overview The voltage at a point in empty space is a number (not a vector) measured in units called volts (V) . Near a positive charge, the voltage is high. Far from a positive charge, the voltage is low. Voltage is a kind of "electrical height". Voltage is to charge like height is to mass. It takes a lot of energy to place a mass at a great height. Likewise, it takes a lot of energy to place a positive charge at a place where there voltage is high. +Q higher voltage here lower voltage here Only changes in voltage ∆V between two different locations have physical significance. The zero of voltage is arbitrary, in the same way that the zero of height is arbitrary. We define ∆V in 2 equivalent ways: • of qUVq∆∆= = change in potential energy of a test charge divided by the test charge • BBAAVVV Edr∆= − =− ⋅∫KKFor constant E-field, this integral simplifies to V E r∆=− ⋅∆KK (∆r = change in position) The electric field is related to the voltage in this way: Electric field is the rate of change of voltage with position. E-field is measured in units of N/C, which turn out to be the same as Phys1120 Dubson 9/14/2009 University of Colorado at BoulderV-2 of 9 volts per meter (V/m). E-fields points from high voltage to low voltage. Where there is a big E-field, the voltage is varying rapidly with distance. E-field low high voltage voltage In order to understand these strange, abstract definitions of voltage, we must review work and potential energy Work and Potential Energy (U) Definition of work done by a force: consider an object pulled or pushed by a constant forceFG. While the force is applied, the object moves through a displacement of ∆r = rf - ri. F θ Notice that the direction of displacement is not the same as the direction of the force, in general. Work done by a force F = F WFrFr Fr||cos≡⋅∆=∆ θ= ∆KK (constant F) F|| = component of force along the direction of displacement If the force F varies during the displacement (or the displacement is not a straight line), then we must use the more general definition of work done by a force FWFdr≡⋅∫KK Work is not a vector, but it does have a sign (+) or (-). Work is positive, negative, or zero, depending on the angle between the force and the displacement. F θ ∆r θ < 90, W positive F ∆r θ = 90, W = 0 F θ ∆r θ > 90, W negative ( i ) ( f )∆r Phys1120 Dubson 9/14/2009 University of Colorado at BoulderV-3 of 9 Definition of Potential Energy U: Associated with conservative forces, such as gravity and electrostatic force, there is a kind of energy of position called potential energy. The change in potential energy ∆U of a system is defined to be the negative of the work done by the "field force", which is the work done by an "external agent" opposing the field. ∆U ≡ Wext = −Wfield This is best understood with an example: A book of mass m is lifted upward a height h by an "external agent" (a hand which exerts a force to oppose the force of gravity). The force of gravity is the "field". In this case, the work done by the hand is Wext = +mgh. The work done by the field (gravity) is Wfield = −mgh. The change in the potential energy of the earth/book system is ∆U = Wext = −Wfield = +mgh . The work done by the external agent went into the increased gravitational potential energy of the book. (The initial and final velocities are zero, so there was no increase in kinetic energy.) A conservative force is force for which the amount of work done depends only on the initial and final positions, not on the path taken in between. Only in the case that the work done by the field in independent of the path, does it make any sense to associate a change in energy with a change in position. Potential energy is a useful concept because (if there is no friction, no dissipation) ∆K + ∆U = 0 ⇔ K + U = constant (no dissipation) (K = kinetic energy = ½ m v2 ) Voltage We define electrostatic potential energy (not to be confused with electrostatic potential or voltage) in the same way as we defined gravitational potential energy, with the relation ∆U = Wext = −Wfield. Consider two parallel metal plates (a capacitor) with equal and opposite charges on the plates which create a uniform electric field between the plates. The field will push a test charge +q toward the negative plate with a constant force of magnitude F = q E. (The situation is vf = 0 Forces on book: Fext h g m Fgrav = mg vi = 0 Phys1120 Dubson 9/14/2009 University of Colorado at BoulderV-4 of 9 much like a mass in a gravitational field, but there is no gravity in this example.) Now imagine grabbing the charge with tweezers (an external agent) and pulling the charge +q a displacement ∆r against the electric field toward the positive plate. By definition, the change in electrostatic potential energy of the charge is f i ext field fieldUUU W W F r qE∆ = − =+ =− = −⋅∆= −⋅∆rKKKK I recommend that you do not try to get the signs from the equations – it's too easy to get confused. Get the sign of ∆U by asking whether the work done by the external agent is positive or negative and apply ∆U = +Wext. ( f ) hi PE +q E F = q E If the E-field is not constant, then the work done involves an integral fffi field fieldiiUUU W Fdr qEd∆ = − = − = −⋅= −⋅∫∫rKKKK. Now we are ready for the definition of voltage difference between two points in space. Notice that the change in PE of the test charge q is proportional to q, so the ratio ∆U/q is independent of q. Recall that electric field is defined as the force per charge : on qFEq≡GG . Similarly, we define the voltage difference ∆V as the change in PE per charge: fiUVEq∆∆≡ = −⋅∫drKK , or ∆ UqV= ∆Remember that the E-field always points from high


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CU-Boulder PHYS 1120 - Voltage

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