Front CoverProject Apollo: The Tough DecisionsTable of ContentsList of FiguresAcknowledgmentsForewordChapter 1: IntroductionChapter 2: Eisenhower's LegacyChapter 3: The Kennedy ChallengeChapter 4: Johnson's Solid SupportChapter 5: NASA ManagementChapter 6: The Grand FinaleChapter 7: The AftermathAppendix 1Appendix 2Appendix 3About the AuthorAcronyms and AbbreviationsNASA Monographs in Aerospace History SeriesIndexBack CoverdNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationOffice of External RelationsHistory DivisionWashington, DC 20546PROJECT APOLLO: The Tough Decisions Robert C. Seamans, Jr.I-38949 Seamans BookCVR.Fin 4/26/05 3:31 PM Page 1Robert C. Seamans, Jr. PROJECT APOLLO The Tough Decisions Monographs in Aerospace History No. 37 • SP-2005-4537NASA SP-2005-4537 Robert C. Seamans, Jr. PROJECT APOLLO The Tough Decisions Monographs in Aerospace History Number 37 National Aeronautics and Space Administration Office of External Relations History Division Washington, DC 2005On the cover: A Saturn rocket figuratively reaches for the Moon. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Seamans, Robert C. Project Apollo: the tough decisions / Robert C. Seamans, Jr. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. 1. Project Apollo (U.S). 2. Manned space flight 3. Space flight to the moon. I. Title. TL789.8.U6A581653 2005 629.45’4’0973—dc22 2005003682 iiTable of Contents iv List of Figures vii Acknowledgments ix Foreword 1 Chapter 1: Introduction 5 Chapter 2: Eisenhower’s Legacy 11 Chapter 3: The Kennedy Challenge 57 Chapter 4: Johnson’s Solid Support 83 Chapter 5: NASA Management 107 Chapter 6: The Grand Finale 117 Chapter 7: The Aftermath 127 Appendix 1 131 Appendix 2 139 Appendix 3 143 About the Author 145 Acronyms and Abbreviations 149 NASA Monographs in Aerospace History Series 151 Index iiiList of Figures Page 13 Figure 1 Results of a study commissioned on 6 January 1961 and chaired by George Low. These findings were available on 7 February 1961. Page 14 Figure 2 NASA Management Triad in the office of James E. Webb (center). He and Dr. Robert C. Seamans, Jr. (right), listen as Dr. Hugh Dryden (left) has the floor. (NASA Image Number 66-H-93) Page 15 Figure 3 Sergey P. Korolev, founder of the Soviet space program, shown here in July 1954 with a dog that had just returned to Earth after a lob to an altitude of 100 kilometers on an R-1d rocket. Page 21 Figure 4 President John F. Kennedy congratulates astronaut Alan B. Shepard, Jr., the first American in space, on his historic 5 May 1961 ride in the Freedom 7 spacecraft and presents him with the NASA Distinguished Service Award. (NASA Image Number 1961ADM-13) Page 22 Figure 5 Formation of USSR and U.S. space teams. Page 24 Figure 6 Launch of Friendship 7 on 20 February 1962 for the first American manned orbital spaceflight. John Glenn was on his way to becoming the first U.S. astro-naut to orbit Earth. (NASA Image Number 62PC-0011) Page 29 Figure 7 An offshore launch facility, from the Fleming study. Page 30 Figure 8 A Vertical Assembly Building, from the Fleming study. Page 31 Figure 9 A potential launch site, from the Fleming study. (Declassified on 28 February 2005 by Norm Weinberg, NASA Headquarters.) Page 32 Figure 10 Layout of Launch Complex 39, from the Fleming study. Page 41 Figure 11 The author’s sons, Toby (right) and Joe inside one of the treads of the massive vehicle transporter (crawler) at Cape Canaveral on the day after the launching of Gemini 3, 23 March 1965. Page 50 Figure 12 Three cosmonauts: Gagarin, the first in space; Tereshkova, the first woman; and Leonov, the first outside a capsule. Page 52 Figure 13 Dr. Wernher von Braun explains the Saturn I with its hydrogen upper stage to President John F. Kennedy. NASA Associate Administrator Robert Seamans is to the left of von Braun. President Kennedy gave his approval to proceed with this launch vehicle at his first budget meeting with the Agency on 12 March 1961. (NASA Image Number 64P-0145) Page 61 Figure 14 On 3 June 1965, Edward H. White II became the first American to step out-side his spacecraft and let go, effectively setting himself adrift in the zero grav-ity of space. For 23 minutes, White floated and maneuvered himself around the Gemini spacecraft while logging 6,500 miles during his orbital stroll. (NASA Image Number 565-30431) Page 63 Figure 15 This photo of the Gemini 7 spacecraft was taken through the hatch window of the Gemini 6 spacecraft during rendezvous. (NASA Image Number S65-63221) Page 69 Figure 16 An aerial view of the Launch Complex 39 area shows the Vehicle Assembly Building (center), with the Launch Control Center on its right. On the west side (lower end) are (left to right) the Orbiter Processing Facility, Process Control Center, and Operations Support Building. To the east (upper end) are Launchpads 39A (right) and 39B (just above the VAB). The crawlerway ivINTRODUCTIONPage 70 Page 79 Page 89 Page 90 Page 91 Page 92 Page 93 Page 95 Page 97 Page 98 Page 99 Page 100 Page 101 Page 102 Page 103 Page 104 Page 109 Page 112 Page 114 Figure 17 Figure 18 Figure 19 Figure 20 Figure 21 Figure 22 Figure 23 Figure 24 Figure 25 Figure 26 Figure 27 Figure 28 Figure 29 Figure 30 Figure 31 Figure 32 Figure 33 Figure 34 Figure 35 stretches between the VAB and the launchpads toward the Atlantic Ocean, seen beyond them. (NASA Image Number 99PP-1213) The Apollo Saturn V 500F Facilities Test Vehicle, after conducting the VAB stacking operations, rolls out of the VAB on its way to Pad 39A to perform crawler, Launch Umbilical Tower, and pad operations. (NASA Image Number 67-H-1187) On 9 November 1967, Apollo 4, the test flight of the Apollo/Saturn V space vehicle, was launched from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39. This was an unmanned test flight intended to prove that the complex Saturn V rocket could perform its requirements. (NASA Image Number 67-60629) NASA organization during the last days of the Eisenhower administration, 17 January 1961. NASA organization as revised to conduct the manned lunar landing, 1 November 1961. NASA organization as revised to strengthen Apollo and other project manage-ment teams, 1 November 1963. NASA organization following the consolidation of general management, 2 January 1966. NASA procurement procedures. Congressional budget history, NASA FY 1962. Gemini master launch schedule on 10 December 1965, with Gemini 7 in orbit and Gemini 6 about to be launched. Five additional