Process Theories Chapter 6Social Learning TheoryPowerPoint PresentationSlide 4Operant ConditioningBehavioral Self-ManagementExpectancy TheorySlide 8Slide 9Slide 10A General Model of Vroom’s Expectancy TheoryApplying Vroom’s Expectancy TheoryPorter and Lawler’s Expectancy ModelManagerial Implications of Expectancy TheoryOrganizational Implications of Expectancy TheoryFactors Considered When Making Equity ComparisonsNegative and Positive InequityRestoring EquityOrganizational JusticePractical Lessons from Equity TheoryPractical Lessons from Equity Theory (continued)GoalsSlide 23Insights from Goal-Setting ResearchInsights from Goal-Setting Research (continued)1Organizational BehaviorProcess TheoriesChapter 6•Learning is the process by which a relatively enduring change in behavior occurs as a result of practice. •Social learning – we acquire much of our behavior by observation and imitation in a social context. This view of behavior is a function of both personal and environmental conditions2Organizational BehaviorSocial Learning Theory•Introduces vicarious learning (modeling), symbolism, and self-control. •Self-efficacy has three dimensions: magnitude (level of task difficulty a person believes she can attain), strength (if the magnitude is strong or weak), and generality (degree the expectation is generalized across situations). •An employee’s sense of self-efficacy influences perception, motivation, and performance. Self-efficacy judgments influence our choices of tasks, situations, and companions; how much effort we will spend; and how long we will try.3Organizational BehaviorEnactive MasteryVicarious ExperienceVerbal PersuasionPhysiological ArousalAnalysis of Task RequirementsAttributional Analysis of ExperienceAssessment of Personal Situation Resources/ConstraintsEstimation of Orchestration Capacity(self-efficacy)Consequences of Self-Efficacy (goal level, persistence)PerformanceFeedbackGist & Mitchell, 1992Self-Efficacy4Organizational BehaviorGist & Mitchell, 1992Self-EfficacyCategories of Experience (Bandura)E.N – personal attainmentV.E. – modelingV.PP.A. - anxietyThe individual’s cognitive appraisal and integration of these experience ultimately determine S.E. (Bandura, 1982)Assessment Process - INDEPENDENTAnalysis of task requirements – inferences about what it takes to perform at various levelsAttributional analysis of experience – individual’s judgments about why a particular performance level occurred. Seek answers to why things happen for mastery and curiosity. Effort, ability, luck, task difficultySelf assessment of resources and constraints for performing task. Personal factors (anxiety, desire, effort) and situational factors (competing demands, distractions)Assessment processes yield interpretative data in a summary level (weighted) judgment process to defines self-efficacy – which may vary across situations.Over time, as task experience increases, S.E. becomes more routine and accurate.Information Processing IssuesJudgments about efficacy become more routine and automatic as experience with a task increases because the individual refers to prior performance and adjusts self-efficacy accordingly.Accuracy – based on accuracy of resources, and specific attributes that contribute to performance – predictive validity.FeedbackUnderstanding of task attributes, complexity, and environmentTraining and information can improve performance (behavioral, analytical, psychological)5Organizational BehaviorOperant Conditioning•When learning occurs as a consequence of behavior. Generally, behavior is controlled by altering the consequences – reinforcement and punishment.•Behavior modification – individual learning by reinforcement. Generally, reinforce for desirable behavior – punish unwanted behavior.6Organizational BehaviorBehavioral Self-Management•Also known as self-control. Self-control is displayed when, in the relative absence of immediate external constraints, a person engages in behavior whose previous probability has been less than that of alternatively available behaviors.•Suggests that individuals will choose behaviors that they have not chosen consistently in the past and this selection may be based on the expectation of positive outcomes in the future.7Organizational BehaviorExpectancy Theory•Motivation is a process concerning choices among alternative forms of voluntary activity.•First level outcomes – associated with doing the job itself: productivity, turnover, quality, etc. •Second level outcomes – events (rewards and punishments) that first level outcomes are likely to produce: promotion, pay raise, termination8Organizational BehaviorExpectancy Theory•Valence – Preference for outcomes. Positively valent when it is preferred; negatively valent when it is not preferred or avoided. Valence is applied to first and second level outcomes•Expectancy – individual’s belief concerning the likelihood or subjective probability that a particular behavior will be followed by a particular outcome. Perceived chance of some event occurring because of a behavior. Values ranging from 0 to 1.•Force – or motivation. The intent of expectancy theory is to assess the magnitude and direction of all the forces acting on the individual. The greatest force is the one likely to occur •Ability – person’s potential for doing the job9Organizational BehaviorExpectancy Theory•Instrumentality – Perception that first-level outcomes are associated with second level outcomes. Range from –1 to +1. A negative indicates a perception that attainment of the second level is certain without the first outcome and impossible with it. A positive indicates that the first outcome is necessary and sufficient for the second outcome to occur.10Organizational Behavior•Valence1 = sum (Valence2 x Instrumentality) This indicates that the valence of the first level outcomes is a sum of the multiplication of the valences of the second level outcomes multiplied by their respective instrumentalities•Motivation is a function of first level outcomes valences’ multiplied by expectancy. If expectancy is low, there will be little motivation. If an outcome’s valence is 0, it will have little effect.•Performance is a multiplicative function of motivation and forceExpectancy Theory11Organizational BehaviorA General Model of Vroom’sExpectancy TheoryHigh EffortDecision toExert EffortLow