MENA 160A1 1st EditionExam 1 Study GuideIslamic Political History- Crusaders: (1098-1291) The Crusades were a series of wars initiated by Christians to win back their holy lands from Muslims, particularly Jerusalem. This was significant because it helped Western Europe from its isolation and open up more to the world in terms of trading. It also led to several developments and events that ended up changing the course of history and helped the west to be a more dominant society in the world.- Saladin: led the Muslims against the crusaders and was able to recapture Palestine from the kingdom of Jerusalem after his victory in the Battle of Hattin (July 1187). At the height of his power he ruled over Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Hejaz and Yemen. He was significantbecause he seized the holy place from the Christians, was the creator of the Ayubbid Empire in Egypt and was known to have chivalry in his heart.- Battle of Hittin: took place in July 1171 and this was a battle between the crusaders and the Ayubbid’s (Saladin’s dynasty). This was a crushing defeat for the crusaders and in thisbattle the king of Jerusalem, Guy de Lusignan, was captured and Renald de Chatillon was beheaded by Saladin. - Saladin’s legacy: he died in Damascus in 1193-Ended Ismai‘li Fatimid Caliphate -Re-established Sunni Islam in Egypt-Founded Ayubbid Dynasty-Built the Citadel in Cairo-Encouraged Madrasas & Sufism in Egypt-Crushed the Crusader Armies at Hattin -Re-conquered Jerusalem-Did not expel all Crusaders from Levant-Became the paragon of chivalry in Europe. -Stories of Richard and Saladin’s cordial relationship.- The Islamic Common Wealth: -The success of the conquests-Was the social and economic development that emerged from the ‘Abbasid political disintegration-From small elite → Muslim majority of the pop.-From Baghdad → Many important centers (Cairo, Cordova, Shiraz, Ghazna, for ex.)-Strong ties of language, religion & culture-Politically divided – Socially and economically unified-Influence of Persian Traditions on Courts & Rulers – copied in the new centers- Seljuqs legacies: -Two brothers: Toghril and Chagri Bego Unified the Seljuqs tribeso Capture Khurasan from Ghaznavids Dandanqan (1040): major victory over Ghaznavidso Advancing Persian Language and Literatureo Turkification and Islamization of Asia Minor ( Near East /Anatolia) would much later become Ottomanso Manzikert (1071): Victory over Byzantines, opening of Anatolia (Turkey)o Sultanate of Rum (Rome) in Anatoliao Wealthy Sultanateo Famous for Sufism and Persian literatureo Manzikert Leads to The Crusadeso Factionalism facilitated Crusader success- Sack of Baghdad: took place in Jan. 22-February 10 1258 and was in an invasion that took place in the city of Bagdad, the capital of the Abbasid. It was significant because it was the Mongol destruction of Baghdad made it a minor city until modern times.- Ottoman Empire: (gunpowder empire) a political military entity that arose from 1300-192c. One of the first great accomplishments of the empire was the capture of Constantinople, in 1453. This victory has been called a monumental achievement by many world historians, and it certainly signaled the death knell of Western occupation ofthe former Byzantine capital.- Safavids Empire: (Gunpowder Empire) took place in 1501-1737 and was one of the most significant ruling dynasties of Iran. They ruled one of the greatest Persian empires after the Muslim conquest of Persia and established the Twelver school of Shi'a Islam as the official religion of their empire, marking one of the most important turning points in Muslim history.-Mughal Empire: (Gunpowder Empire) took place in 1526-1757 and was an imperial powerin the Indian subcontinent. Was founded by Babur, who was a ruler of a kingdom near Persia (modern day Iran). The Taj Mahal - the most famous structure in India built duringMughal Era-MapIslamic Theology and Philosophy- Kalam: To explain the faith for believers and defend it against attacks from outsiders-Approaches to theologyo -‘ilm al-kalam: “science of discourse”o -‘aqida: “creed” – normative approacho -Gradual emergence of theological schools- The four Major Islamic theological topics:1. Leadership of the community- Who is the rightful leader? 2. Relationship between faith and deeds- Problem of “the grave sinner” 3. Qadar (power)- Free will vs. pre-determinism4. God’s Attributes (sifat)- Relationship to God’s essence- The Khawarij: meaning one who rebels against the acknowledged Muslim ruler whom Islam obliges every Muslim to obey and not rebel against. -believed that committing a grave sin would render a person non-Muslim-term came about when 12 thousand Muslims rebelled against Caliph Ali- The Murji’a: believed that only God has the authority to judge who is a true Muslim and who is not, and that Muslims should consider all other Muslims as part of the community. This theology promoted tolerance of Ummayads and converts to Islam who appeared. Was a theological school that was opposed to the Kharijites on questions related to early controversies regarding sin and definitions of what is a true Muslim.- Ahmad ibn Hanbal: Remembered as the exemplary defender of hadith. He collected and memorized a prodigious number of traditions, and sought to embody the spirit of hadith, avoiding any practice which he could not justify by reference to the prophetic Sunna. -Famous for heroically enduring torture and imprisonment during the Mu’tazilite inquisition under Ma’mun and Mu’tasim. He did this through straightforward loyalty to the Qur’an. - Bayt al-hikma: also known as “House of Wisdom” and was a library, translation institute and research center established in Abbasid era in Baghdad, Iraq. Was founded by Caliph Harun al-Rashid and was the key institution in the translation movement and consideredto have been a major intellectual hub during the Islamic Golden Age. - Al-Kindi: Was the first of the Muslim peripatetic philosophers, and is unanimously hailed as the "father of Islamic or Arabic philosophy" for his synthesis, adaptation andpromotion of Greek and Hellenistic philosophy in the Muslim world.- Al-Farabi: Was a renowned scientist and philosopher of the Islamic Golden Age. He was significant because he took up the problem of figuring out how the Islamic idea of prophetic revelation could be fitted into this system, and his solution provided a