CEE 1030 1nd EditionFinal ExamChapter 1: An Introduction to GeologyWhat is geology?Geology is the study of the Earth, and encompasses both physical geology and historical geology. An important focus of geology is studying the relationship between humans and the environment and creating solutions to problems.What are the different sections of the Earth?The geosphere is the solid Earth, the hydrosphere is the water portion, and the atmosphere is the gaseous envelope. The biosphere is the totality of life on Earth.Inside the Earth, layers are divided into the lithosphere, asthenosphere, transition zone, lower mantle, outer core, and inner core.What are the Earth’s sources of energy?The Sun drives external processes and heat from Earth’s interior drives internal processes.Chapter 2: Plate TectonicsWhat is plate tectonics?Based on the continental drift hypothesis, Earth is made up of constantly-shifting plates. This process is driven by convection in the mantle of the Earth.What are the different kind of plate boundaries?Divergent: plates moving apartTransform: plates moving past each otherConvergent: plates moving togetherChapter 3: Matter and MineralsWhat is a mineral?A mineral is any naturally occurring inorganic solid that possesses an orderly crystalline structure and a well-defined chemical composition. Minerals with the same chemical composition but different internal structures are called polymorphs.What are the properties of minerals?Crystal shape, luster, color, streak, tenacity, hardness, cleavage, fracture, and density.Chapter 4: Magma, Igneous Rocks, and Intrusive ActivityWhat are igneous rocks?Igneous rocks form when magma cools and solidifies. Extrusive or volcanic igneous rocks form at the surface, while intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks form at some depth. When magma cools, crystals are formed—the larger the crystal, the slower the cooling.Chapter 5: Volcanoes and Volcanic HazardsWhat are the main factors in volcanic eruptions?The main factors are magma composition, temperature, and amount of dissolved gases it contains. Magma viscosity is related to both temperature and silica content. The more silicate in magma, the more viscous it is. Basaltic lava has low silica content, while rhyolitic has high silica content. The more viscous a magma, the more explosive a volcanic eruption will be.What are the different kinds of volcanoes?Shield cones are broad and slightly domed, cinder cones have steep slopes of pyroclastic material, and composite cones are large symmetrical structures built of interbedded lavas andpyroclastic deposits. Most active volcanoes are found along plate boundariesChapter 6: Weathering and SoilWhat are the different kinds of external processes?Mass wasting is the transport of rock material downslope under the influence of gravity. Weathering is the disintegration and decomposition of rock. Mechanical weathering is the physical breaking up of rock into smaller pieces. Chemical weathering is the altering of a rock’s chemical composition. A rock’s weathering is determined by particle size, mineral makeup, and climate factors.Chapter 7: Sedimentary RocksHow are sedimentary rocks made?Sedimentary rocks are made through the lithification of sediment. Lithification includes compaction and cementation of sediment. Chapter 8: Metamorphism and Metamorphic RocksHow are metamorphic rocks made?Metamorphic rocks are made by changing the makeup of a rock through heat, pressure, and chemically-active fluids.What are the geologic environments in which metamorphism occurs?Contact or thermal metamorphism, hydrothermal metamorphism, burial and subduction zone metamorphism, and regional metamorphism.Chapter 9: Geologic TimeHow do geologists measure time?Geologists use relative dating (putting things in relative order) and numerical dating (finding the precise time something occurred).In relative dating, geologists use the law of superposition, the principle of original horizontality, the principle of cross-cutting relationships, and inclusions.What is the geologic time scale?Within the geologic time scale, Earth’s history is divided into units. The eons are Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic. The eras within the Phanerozoic eon are the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.Chapter 10: Crustal DeformationWhat is deformation in rocks?Deformation is when a rock is changed in shape or volume. Stress is the amount of force appliedto a given area. Stress that is uniform in all directions is confining stress, while differential stress is applied unequally in different directions. Tensional stresses elongate a rock, while differential stresses shorten a rock.Deformation occurs when the elastic limit of a rock is surpassed, resulting in deformation or fracturing. Chapter 11: Earthquakes and Earthquake HazardsWhat are earthquakes?Earthquakes are caused by the release of energy from rocks that have been subjected to toomuch pressure. Earthquakes release body waves (divided into primary and secondary waves) and surface waves. The intensity of an earthquake is measured by the degree of ground shaking; the magnitude is the amount of energy released. Chapter 12: Earth’s InteriorWhat are the different kinds of crust?Oceanic crust is created at mid-ocean ridges, ad continental crust has many different compositions.What are some of Earth’s internal processes?Convection transfers heat through the movement of material, while conduction transfers heat by collisions between atoms or the motions of electrons.Chapter 13: Divergent BoundariesWhat is the passive continental margin?The passive continental margin is made up of the continental shelf, the continental slope, and the continental rise.Active continental margins, on the other hand, are located around the Pacific Ocean in areas where the leading edge of a continent is overrunning oceanic lithosphere.Chapter 14: Convergent BoundariesWhat are the regions of subduction zones?Deep ocean trenches where a subducting slab of oceanic lithosphere bends and descends into the asthenosphere, a volcanic arc that is built upon overlying plates, a forearc region located between the trench and the volcanic arc, and a backarc region on the side of the volcanic arc opposite the trench.Chapter 15: Mass WastingWhat are the different forms of mass wasting?Different forms include slump, rockslide, debris flow, and earthflow. Slower forms include creep and solifluction.Chapter 16: Running WaterWhat are the different steps of the hydrologic