© Tori M Saneda 2005-2008 Subsistence Foraging - ~ 90% of human history were foragers - Today = ¼ million people - 85% of food comes from resources available in nature: hunt, fish, gather - Generally make own tools (simple technology—this does not refer to what is better, simply that the tools are made by hand) - Reason for production = personal use; share - Division of labor: family-based; overlapping gender roles (more age based) - Religion: wide variety - Property: egalitarian; collective; no private ownership - Resource use: extensive & temporary – low consumption levels - Sustainability: high degree Example: !Kung Kalahari desert - No big migratory thru territory; vegetation scattered - But, use about 100 species of animals (eat 50) and over 150 species of plants (eat 100) - Favorite food = mongongo nut = high protein - Eat way out of areas; leave so can regenerate o 1st eat all food they like o Then eat less desirable food o Move when resources getting low OR seasonally  Dry season = large camps 20-40 people near permanent water source  Rainy season = small camps; 2-3 families scattered over landscape - High degree of mobility = low # of possessions and limited population growth - Division of labor o Everyone gathers and hunts o Share food w/ other members of group o Possessions shared  Little inequality = egalitarian - Kin relations: both sides (bilateral) - !Kung quick to incorporate new technology o Access to modern tools through interaction w/agriculturalists, governments, traders Pastoralists - 2nd oldest subsistence strategy - 1st food production strategy - Use of domestic animals and their by-products for more than 56% of their diet - Most common = sheep, goats, camels, cattle, horses, donkeys - Least common = llama, yak, reindeer - Today found in “marginal” habitats - This is NOT ranching© Tori M Saneda 2005-2008 o Production for more than meat and milk o Animals moved to pasture—fodder not brought to animals  extensive land use - production for personal use and trade - division of labor = gender-based; little overlap of activities - extended families - religion: variety, but most = monotheistic; concerned w/herd animals - animals considered personal property; also housing, some domestic goods, no private land—travel rights - resource use = extensive; temporary pasture; semi-permanent camps - sustainability = high b/s low-moderate consumption Example: Ariaal Kenya - adapted to marginal environments – plains and slopes - successful because exploit highly diversified system of animal husbandry o key = herd diversity and mobility (cattle, camels, sheep, goats) o herd split and pastured in different places – ensure her survivability against disease and drought o herds convert patchy and seasonal vegetation in to constant supply of food – allows Ariaal to gather surplus for trade to get items they don’t produce o keep herd mobile so environment not overstressed o some of the herd used for food—sheep and goats = meat and trade o use milk of camels o Zebu cattle = exchange – used for bride price (more later in the quarter)  Bride’s family gets 8 cattle in exchange for daughter  Distributes wealth and helps maintain herd diversity o Blood of animals also consumed = “let blood”  Warriors (unmarried men drink pure blood)  Mixed w/milk for others  Renewable resource --~ 4liters every 3-4 weeks from both a mature camel or Zebu  Blood highly nutritious  Low energy expenditure for nutritional return - Ariaal wealth = herd size - Kin relations = patrilineal - Settlements widely dispersed – hard to maintain social cohesion o Use age-sets  Labor organized by age (age sets = 14 years) - Males: boy, warrior, elder - Females: girl, adolescent; married - Each age set has specific clothes, diet, socializing rules, duties, etc. - e.g., warriors: herders o initiated into warrior status as a group – circumcision and group name o grow hair into long red-dyed plaits o can’t eat food seen by women© Tori M Saneda 2005-2008 o not allowed to even see women; not even mother o Why – population control o Adolescent girls not allowed to associate w/any males, not even father Horticulturists - 56% of food = cultivateddomestic crops using hand tools o Often in conjunction w/foraging activities or trade - Limited surplus production - Production for personal use and trade - Division of labor: all work w/domesticated crops, but gender-related tasks, e.g., men plant; women process) - Religion: ancient horticulturalists = polytheistic—rain and crops; modern – variety, but still elements of polytheism (multiple spirits) - Property: use rights but not ownership - Resource use: extensive land use; labor intensive; permanent settlement; moderate consumption o Shifting fields o Slash/burn o Fallow fields o polycropping - Sustainability: pretty good Example: Yanomami Amazonia - Key to survival = garden, hunt, collect o Don’t encourage one plot to out-produce another household – collective ownership concept - Little to no surplus production - Division of labor: gender: men hunt, women gather - 80-90% of diet comes from gardens” cassava, sweet potatoes, taro, maize, avocados, squash, cashews, papayas - Settlement pattern: year-round; but every few years, move entire settlement o Why? Give local resources time to regenerate (firewood), move away from trash build up; warfare o Some seasonal movement  Rainy season – little movement—too muddy; time spent working in gardens  Dry season –visit other villages: feast, trade, raid - Kin relation: patrilineal, polygamous, exogamous - Social structure based on warrior skills o More skilled = more wives and children o Competing for resources; including women Intensive Agriculture - Multiple levels: peasant and industrial© Tori M Saneda 2005-2008 - Peasant: o Dependent on draft animals o Large, extended family o Polycropping - Industrial o Mass production o Monocropping o High capital investment o Machinery o Urbanization o Nuclear family - Commonalities between peasant and industrial o Manipulation of environment o Fertilizers and irrigation o Occupational specialization o Public vs. private dichotomy (men = public/ women = private—the home) o Private ownership o Permanent residence o Extensive/intensive land use o Not