2 Research Methodology What is scientific inquiry Scientific method a systematic procedure of observing and measuring phenomena to answer questions about what happens when it happens what causes it and why The scientific method depends on theories hypotheses and research o Theory explanation or a model of how something in the world works consisting of interconnected ideas and concepts o Hypothesis specific testable prediction about the outcome that would best support the theory collection of data o Research scientific process that involves the systematic and careful Data objective observations or measurements Replication repetition of an experiment to confirm the results o Theories should generate hypotheses Unexpected findings can be valuable What are the types of studies in psychological research Variable something in the world that can be measured and that can vary Descriptive studies involve observing and classifying behavior Type of study Descriptive studies it involves observing and noting behavior to analyze it objectively Longitudinal studies a type of developmental design which involves observing and classifying developmental changes that occur in the same people over time Cross sectional studies it involves observing and classifying developmental changes that occur in different groups of people at the same time Correlational studies it examines how variables are naturally related in the real world without any attempt by the researcher to alter them Experimental studies a study that tests casual hypotheses by measuring and manipulating variables Advantages Valuable in early stages of research Allows for a detailed description in a real world setting Provides information about the effects of age Allows researchers to see developmental changes Disadvantages Observer bias Reactivity Expensive Time consuming Unidentified variables Directionality problem Third variable problem It often takes place in an artificial setting Inexpensive Less time consuming Measures people of different ages to learn about developmental changes Relies on naturally occurring relationships It may take place in a real world setting Allows the researcher to understand if two or more variables are related without demonstrating a casual relationship It can demonstrate casual relationships It can avoid the directionality problem Allows the researcher to conclude that one variable caused a change in another variable o Observer bias Observer bias systematic errors in observation that occur because of an observer s expectations Experimenter expectancy effect actual change in the behavior of the people or animals being observed that is due to observer bias Correlational designs examine how variables are related o Correlational study it examines how variables are naturally related in the real world without any attempt by the researcher to alter them It provides important information about the natural relationships among variables Drawbacks Directionality problem it occurs when researchers cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable Third variable problem when the experimenter cannot directly manipulate the independent variable and therefore cannot be confident that another unmeasured variable is not the actual cause of differences in the dependent variable An experiment involves manipulating conditions o Experiment a study that tests casual hypotheses by measuring and manipulating variables Research conditions are most likely to be artificial o Control comparison group participants in study that receive no o Experimental treatment group participants in study that receive intervention intervention o Independent variable condition that is manipulated by the experimenter to examine its impact on the dependent variable o Dependent variable the measure that is affected by manipulation of the independent variable o Establishing causality Confound anything that affects a dependent variable and may unintentionally vary between the experimental conditions of a study Random assignment is used to establish equivalent groups o Population everyone in the group the experimenter is interested in o Sample subset of a population Random sampling Convenience sample differ systematically o Selection bias when participants in different groups in an experiment o Random assignment each potential research participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of the independent variable o Meta analysis a study of studies that combines the findings of multiple studies to arrive at a conclusion What are the data collection methods of psychological science Culturally sensitive research studies that take into account the ways culture affects thoughts feelings and actions Data collection methods Cross cultural studies it compares groups of people from different cultures Advantages Examines the effect of culture on some variable of interest thereby making psychology more applicable around the world It can provide extensive data about one or a few individuals or organizations It can gather data from a large number of people Easy to administer Cost efficient Fast Gives the researcher the opportunity to explore new lines of questioning Allows researchers to determine how responses vary over time Simple way to study cognition and perception Less affected by observer bias or subject reactivity Case studies it is a special type of observational descriptive study that involves intensive examination of one person or a few individuals or one or a few organizations Interactive methods it involves asking questions of participants who then respond in any way they feel is appropriate or select from among a fixed number of options Response performance methods it measures the information processing while psychological tasks are being performed Researchers measure reaction time measure response accuracy and ask participants to make stimulus judgments Disadvantages Some situations and some specific words do not convey the same meaning when translated across cultures and can leave room for alternative explanations such as misunderstanding during the research process It can be very subjective Observer bias It is not possible to generalize the results from an individual to the population Self report bias People may not recall information accurately Costly Time consuming Less likely useful in real world settings Observing is an unobtrusive strategy o Observational techniques a research method of careful and