1 General Psychology Final Exam Study Guide By Irene Huda CH 2 Science of Psychology Scientific Method observe theory testable hypotheses test observe reject revise theories based on observations Operational definition clear statement of procedures used to define research variables Falsifiable can show that hypothesis is false through experiment data Research Designs o Observational Case study 1 person studied in depth oldest type now mostly used to study extremely rare cases Strengths Limitation Strengths Limitations Survey in depth study not rep of everybody Ex Freud asks people to report behaviors opinions b c want to look good to self researchers easy good way to measure attitudes opinions behavior not good at ID ing causes of behavior participants less than honest Naturalistic Observation Random sampling fair rep of pop each member has eq chance of inclusion actual behavior in real environment observe report unobtrusively Strengths Limitations unobtrusive can make somewhat unfiltered observations correlation NOT causation unethical o Experimental Random assignment pure chance control condition vs experimental condition everything controlled by experimenter easy to see causes If 2 groups participants DON T CHOOSE Strengths differ on dep variable indep variable caused change biased Limitations participants can t be forced to participate those who do may be CH 6 Consciousness Sleep and Dreams Consciousness our awareness of ourselves our environment o What s the content going on in our head at any given moment William James o Ever changing ever flowing state of moments never have same one twice more o Very personal cannot experience someone else s o Continuous thoughts flow from one to next no start end o Selective can only focus on one few thing s at a time Levels of Waking Consciousness o Processing Conscious controlled Effort attention ex learning to drive new language Self control restraint ex diet Non conscious automatic 2 Well learned tasks ex driving native language Environmental influence on behavior subconscious Limits of Conscious Self Control o Too many things going on at a given moment can t control everything Conscious control NEED to focus on limited Non conscious control easy habits Non consciously Controlled Behaviors o Environments make us do things without our awareness control o Subconscious Stimuli CAN affect us w priming Effects likelihood of idea influence on behavior Limits NOT long lasting effects NOT cause to do things we won t ordinarily do Randy Gardner age 17 healthy 1964 11 days w out sleep world record o 24 hrs a little tired day 2 blurred vision day 4 hard to focus hallucinations day 6 lost track of reality day 9 paranoia day 11 couldn t think straight Sleep benefits better mood more creative attentive stronger immune system Sleep deprivation groggy confused muscles ache body temp lowers weaker immune system death via infections 4 Stages of Sleep o Non REM 1 5 min o Non REM 2 20 min o Non REM 3 30 min slow alpha theta waves senses stop easy to wake up slow breathing pulse muscles relax slower delta waves sleep walking talking hard to wake up human growth hormone release cortex blocked messages darting eyes light sleep easy to wake up DREAMING Sleep progresses spend more more time in REM sleep rapid brain waves aroused genitals active motor o REM rapid eye movements Freud o A lot of our actions are driven by motivations feeling issues of which we are not consciously aware Defense mechanisms unaware of socially inappropriate motivations while Id unconscious source of our basic motivations dreaming vs while awake Mind uses DMs to push away urges o Dreams unconscious wishes desires fulfilled o Dreams royal road to unconscious Dream interpretation Manifest content Latent content storyline underlying meaning Free Association What does mean to you o Dreams current conscious concerns o Activation synthesis theory stimuli random activity generated in brainstem no point in interpreting dreams CH 8 Learning Learning change in behavior due to experience ex dog in street almost hit by car stay out of street 3 o Can t be observed directly o Change in observable behavior Conditioning Learning Associations o Classical link 2 stimuli predictions o Operant behavior linked to consequence repeat good avoid bad Pavlov o Discovered classical conditioning accidentally digestion vs diff foods o Saliva vs diff foods dogs salivate for ALL food associations UCS naturally automatically triggers response ex food ex 2 Basics of Classical Conditioning o Unconditioned Stimulus o Unconditioned Response o Conditioned Stimulus dentist s drill dentist says not going to hurt flinching after dentist says not going to hurt o Conditioned Response UCR natural response to UCS ex drool ex 2 flinch CS triggers response after association w UCS ex bell ex 2 CR learned response to CS ex drooling after bell ex 2 John B Watson pair stimuli w response get infants people to do anything you want regardless of abilities background o Little Albert infant orphan fear hate something he initially liked fire monkey dog rat by making loud noise immediately after introducing animal o Generalization stimuli similar to CS can elicit CR greater similarity stronger CR ex o Extinction if UCS doesn t follow CS CR weakens ex no food after bell stop Basics of Classical Conditioning Albert w rat rabbit salivating after bell Classical Conditioning Applications o Counter conditioning treat phobias extinction ex fear of elevator b c of experience guided relaxing exercises no fear o Advertising link products w positive stimuli ex car attractive person o Drug overdoses protective CRs experienced users try drugs in new environments Operant Conditioning o Idea that people animals do things repeat things that get them things they want o WHY associating own behavior w its consequences o Thorndike s law of effect Favorable consequences reinforcements more likely to repeat Unfavorable consequences punishments less likely to repeat o Skinner Most influential psychologist after Freud Environment gives reward or punishment Focus on operant conditioning Favorites subject animals pigeons rats useful for food studies equipment operant chamber Skinner box box w lever button inside for animal to press dispenser for food procedure shaping Shaping researcher trainer gives reinforcers to guide behavior toward goal Schedules of Reinforcement 4 o Continuous reward EVERY time behavior occurs o Intermittent reward SOMETIMES after behavior
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