Chapter 7 1 Cognition thinking manipulating and transforming info in memory a Study all mental activities associated with knowing remembering deciding attending solving judging and communicating 2 Conservation of Resources Energy short cuts is major theme 3 a Mental Images internal picture like presentations things events i Organization speed often less cumbersome than verbal ii Mental Maps help find things b Concepts ideas that represent a group of similar objects events ideas or people i Help with new data ii Prototype typical example iii Formal by definition iv Natural by prototype note important features use to compare speeds sorting into categories speeds up and guides problem solving 4 Problem Solving thinking behaving in ways to reach goals identify goal and steps needed to get there a Trial and Error mechanical try different ways until one works b Algorithms step by step procedures that guarantee a solution often labor intensive i Every letter every space formula c Heuristics speedier but more error prone educated guess based on past experience d e Creativity ability to combine ideas and behaviors in new ways think outside the box Insight solution comes suddenly and often out of the blue a Confirmation Bias tendency to search for info that supports what we already think and to ignore or distort info that contradicts our beliefs 5 b Fixation i Mental Set tendency to approach problems from only one way especially if it worked in the past failure to see from a different perspective slows down problem solving ii Functional Fixedness tendency to think of things only in terms of usual 1 Ex O T T F F functions 6 Using and Misusing Heuristics two generally helpful shortcuts can lead very smart people to dumb decisions a Representative Heuristic judging how likely something is by how well it represents matches the prototype i Can help hurt ii Can lead us to ignore other relevant info like base rates b Availability Heuristic the easier it is to think of an example the more likely we are to think it will happen yet it may be due to vividness or personal experiences not reality 7 Overconfidence we are often more confident that we are correct we overestimate the 8 Belief Perseverance Phenomenon tendency to cling to initial conceptions even after basis accuracy of our beliefs judgments they were formed on has been discredited a Ex harder to change someone s opinion than establish new ones 9 Intuition an effortless immediate automatic feeling or thought as contrasted with explicit conscious thinking 10 Effects of Framing how an issue is posed can significantly affect decisions and judgments 11 Intelligence reflects our ability to understand the world to learn from experience to acquire knowledge to use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or problem solving cannot be measured directly must infer a Crystallized Intelligence accumulated knowledge verbal skills strategies school info cultural intelligence b Fluid Intelligence ability to solve problems see relationships reason abstractly believed to be relatively free of cultural influence 13 14 IQ Intelligence Quotient a sore that indicates how well you did on a particular intelligence test compared to others your age a How is it measured Test answers on 100 s of people of different ages raw scores right converted to IQ scores using formulas tells you how well you did for your age mean average 100 a Reliable does the test give consistent results b Valid are you measuring what you think you are measuring c Need to be reliable to be valid but not all reliable tests are valid a Average IQ 100 b 50 of IQ s are between 90 110 c Gifted well above average intelligence IQ 130 global giftedness 2 or superior talent Garner s or creativity d Mental Retardation IQ 70 i ii Deficits in adaptive behavior iii Before age 18 e Learning Disability achievement significantly below expectations based on IQ can be gifted and have a learning disability can be gifted and have learning disability 17 40 50 if IQ seems to be inherited IQ is influenced by heredity and environment of intelligence a b Generally stable after age 6 7 doesn t change overnight the older you are the less likely it will change unless you have big environment changes c Adoption d Factors parental communication support income level quality of can make a substantial difference neighborhoods schools nutrition healthcare 18 See question 17 answers 19 a Flynn Effect increase in average IQ score about 3 points a decade biggest jump is problem solving not general knowledge i Why Better nutrition environmental changes changes in teaching more time in cognitive based leisure activities a Scholastic achievement starts age 7 higher IQ better grades more likely to stay in school b Vocational outcome starts age 7 higher IQ more likely to have prestigious jobs but c Health adjustment life satisfaction sometimes kids better liked by peers higher IQ juvenile delinquent aggressive lower IQ d No relationship depression anxiety social withdraw 12 15 16 20 21 a Advantages Labeling opens doors to services provides ideas for interventions does b Disadvantages Labeling limiting expectations self fulfill prophecy too narrow may predict certain things and we can impact or may not tap what is culturally relevant Chapter 9 2 3 4 1 Human Development changes between conception and death a Developmental psychologists study EVERYTHING a Variability is the norm and it is okay b Nature vs Nurture Genes vs Environment a Longitudinal 1 group many tests same people at different ages wait and expensive see how individuals change scores ranking b Cross Sectional many groups 1 time different people at different ages simultaneous faster and cheaper see age differences 5 Vocabulary a Constructivist Theory argues that humans generate knowledge and meaning from an interaction between their experiences and their ideas b Stage Theory distinct pattern of development from Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational and Formal Operational a Adaption in born tendency to take in and make sense of new data info b Assimilation first try interpret new by incorporating it into existing understanding c Accommodation change current understanding to fit new data d Object Permanence know objects continue to exist even when we don t see them interact with them implies mental representation of object e Symbolic Function using a thing or symbol to represent something else words and pictures allows for language development and
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