Survey to Human Anatomy and Physiology Lecture Notes EXAM 3 Lectures 1 and 2 Directional terms Memorize in pairs Always have exact opposites North vs south east vs west Anterior vs posterior Directional Terms Superior toward the head Inferior away from the head Anterior toward the front of the body Posterior toward the back of the body Medial toward the midline of the body Lateral away from the midline of the body Intermediate Proximal closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk Distal farther away from the origin of the body part Superficial toward or at the body surface external Deep away from the body surface internal Navigate around the body Bone cartilage to bone Initially all bone is composed of flexible not supportive cartilage Theses cartilages ossify to become bone Some cartilages remain throughout life Hyaline support Elastic flex stretch Fibrocartilage compressible discs Eventually MOST of the original cartilage will ossify to bone Classification and anatomy Axial skeleton long axis of the body includes skill vertebral column and rib cage Involved in protecting and support of body parts Appendicular skeleton bones of limbs pelvic and thoracic and girdles shoulder and hip Movement and manipulation of environment Shape Long bone long narrow bone shafted with two ends femur humerus Short bone cube shaped wrist ankle Sesamoid bone special type of short bone that are floating bones embedded within ligament and tendons patella Flat bones thin flat sometimes curved sternum scapula most skill bones are flat bones Irregular bones exceptions to the aforementioned shapes vertebral Functions of bones Support a structural scaffold that supports the body columns and pillars Protection protect internal organs spinal cord brain hear lungs Movement provide attachment and functional sites for muscle Mineral storage bank of calcium and phosphate deposits with withdrawals Blood cell formation hematopoiesis occurs within marrow cavities of certain bones Anatomical aspects of bone Compact versus spongy bone outside vs inside dense structurally solid outer layer vs inner honeycombed appearance trabeculae allowing for red yellow marrow and vessels to flow through Typical long bone structure is model to remember of bone growth and structure Diaphysis shaft long axis surrounding medullary cavity contains yellow marrow at the end of long bones slightly expanded as the head of the femur joints Epiphysis Anatomy Surrounding the bone is a layer of membrane periosteum 2 layers of the periosteum with 2 different cell types with 2 different functions Outer fibrous layer surrounding compact bone that is dense connective tissue Inner layer osteogenic layer Sharpery s fibers connect and secure periosteum to underlying bone Periosteum allows for insertion points for tendons and ligaments Endosteum internal bone covering with osteogenic cells Structural unit of bone Every organ and system has a structural unit osteon or Haversian System Each osteon allows for structural weight to be placed onto millions of osteons Groups of rings concentrically placed around each other similar to that of tree rings Each ring is known as lamella Between each lamella are osteocytes responsible for bone development These cells allows for mineral deposition and bone formation Bone development Ontogenesis and ossification are phases that describe the process of bone formation 2 types of bone development Intramembranous ossification o Most bones of the skill and clavicles o All ones using this route of bone development develop into flat bone o Cell centers from fibrous membrane allow for an origination of bone deposition o Hollow form expands outward Endochondral ossification o Most bones employ this route of bone development o Begins very early in life approx second month of life o Hyaline cartilage is essentially layered upon after ossification initiates o Initiated at primary ossification and the center of the shaft of the bone The chase Diaphysis elongates and medullary cavity forms within shaft Secondary ossification centers ossify and eventually epiphyses ossify growth plates between extending diaphysis and secondary ossification the chase Bone homeostasis Bone anatomy bone growth now bone maintenance within the body The bank of bone o Deposits and withdrawals Deposit injury for added strength Osteoclasts bone cell breakers Bone withdrawals bone restoration When certain substances are low calcium bone is the bank of many of these substances Essentially a loan that needs to be repaid if not then a collector comes Levels of imbalance of calcium lead to hormonal regulation to maintain homeostatic levels of calcium Parathyroid and thyroid glands involved Maintenance of Ca2 levels Normal circulation levels 9 11mg 100 ml of blood If levels drop Ca is taken from bone Levels of Ca drop PTH is released stimulation osteoclasts to break down bone Ca into blood When levels rise PTH release is stopped Lectures 3 and 4 Skeletal have striations sarcomere Voluntary control Smooth found in walls of hollow organs stomach and bladder Manipulation of fluids thru vasculature and associated organs Cardiac occurs only in heart Skin Outer covering containing and providing barrier Barrier mechanical between external environment and underlying tissues Barrier defense mechanisms and separation immunity ideas Two layers epidermis and dermis Epidermis numerous layers of epithelial cells Inner epidermis living dividing Outer epidermis dead flattened Outer layer cells far from vascular layer Keratin filaments Dermis connective tissue layer with elastin stretch and collagen strength Vessels supply tissues Exocrine glands invaginations of the epidermis into underlying dermis Sweat glands Sebaceous glands Myosin head Posses actin binding sites ATP binding sites ATPase enzymes that split ATP to provide energy for contraction