Final Exam Review Sheet Definitions and Distinctions 1 Contingent vs Necessary Something is contingent if it is not necessary i e if it could have failed to exist Most things seem to exist contingently All of the human artifacts around us might not have existed for each one of them whoever made it might have decided not to do so Their existence therefore is contingent You and I too might not have existed our respective parents might never have met or might have decided not to have children Something is necessary if it could not possibly have failed to exist The laws of mathematics are often thought to be necessary It is plausible to say that mathematical truths such as two and two making four hold irrespective of the way that the world is Even if the world were radically different it seems two and two would still make four God too is often thought to be a necessary being 2 Teleological Arguments A teleological or design argument is an a posteriori argument for the existence of God based on apparent design and purpose in the universe The argument is based on an interpretation of teleology wherein purpose and design appear to exist in nature beyond the scope of any such human activities The teleological argument suggests that given this premise the existence of a designer can be assumed typically presented as God 3 Ockham s Razor the simplest solution is the best one 4 Argument Defeater attempts to show that an argument fails to establish its conclusion 5 Argument Against provides an argument in favor of the negation of a given conclusion 6 Natural Evil volcanoes earthquakes disease etc 7 Moral Evil evils brought about by human wrongdoing and or morally bad attitudes 8 Deontology The rightness or wrongness of actions is not determined solely by their consequences o Kant One s intentions or the reasons behind one s actions are what determine whether the action is right or wrong o Morality is a matter of rights obligations duty 9 Consequentialism Consequences of one s conduct are the ultimate basis for any judgment about the rightness of that conduct i e Utilitarianism where Ends justify the Means 10 Intrinsic value vs Extrinsic Instrumental Value The intrinsic value of something is said to be the value that that thing has in itself or for its own sake or as such or in its own right Extrinsic value is value that is not intrinsic 11 Imperative an objective principle that tells us what it is most rational to do 12 Categorical Imperative tells us what we should do no matter our goals o Objective because they apply to all rational beings o Hypothetical imperatives rely upon the end goal for their formulation but categorical imperatives do not o Therefore there is only one categorical imperative with different formulations One categorical imperative but many duties follow 13 Hypothetical Imperative tells us what we should do to attain to a certain goal o Subjective because only those who have that particular goal ought to act according to the imperative 14 Maxim any simple and memorable rule or guide for living 15 Ends that which a mean is intended to case 16 Means that which is conducive to bringing about an end When you set a goal your goal is the end and the actions you do to achieve it are the means 17 Summum Bonum bonum the highest good a That which is good without bringing about any further good b An end in itself c Good in virtue of itself in some way An example what is the immediate reason why you are in class at this moment The ultimate 18 Applied Ethics Discussion of a particular ethical issue i e whether it is morally permissible morally impermissible or morally obligatory Applied ethics applying philosophy to real life problems means that it has practical implications Apply a specific ethical theory to an applied issue Argue for a specific position on an applied issue from theory neutral premises 19 Marginal Utility utility as the feelings of pleasure and pain and further as a quantity of feeling 20 Veil of ignorance No one knows their place classless sexless raceless don t know personal traits e g intelligence physical strength likes dislikes conceptions of the good psychological propensities Since all are similarly situated and no one is able to design principles to favor his own particular condition the principles of justice are the result of a fair agreement or bargain 580 21 Reflective Equilibrium finding that balance between the original principles and our current judgments where they finally coincide Can be revised in light of further considerations 22 Maximin decision strategy Decision making procedure by which you choose the option whose worst case scenario is better than the worst case scenario of all the other options This is opposed to decision making procedures that seek to maximize potential gains best case scenario better than the best case scenarios of the other options or that choose the option with the best probability of a good outcome 23 Principles of Justice are those that free equal and rational persons would agree upon The principles of justice lay the ground rules for all of the other agreements and decisions in the society Principles of justice concern o Basic rights and duties o Division of social benefits social and economic 1 each person is to have an equal right to the most basic liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others 2 social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both o A reasonably expected to be everyone s advantage and o B attached to positions and offices open to all The first principle is more fundamental and cannot be violated in order to get a better distribution of social and economic distribution 1st principle includes basically all the rights included in our constitution freedom to vote freedom to run for political office freedom of speech thought etc 2nd principle includes the distribution of wealth design of political and social organizations Injustice inequalities that are not to Teleological Arguments Paley Natural Theology Hume Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion BB Paley Hume God s design of the whole creation could be seen in the general happiness or well being that was evident in the physical and social order of things In the Dialogues Hume s characters debate a number of arguments for the existence of God and arguments whose proponents believe through which we may come to know the nature of God Such topics debated include the argument from design for which Hume uses a house and whether