Early theorists adopted the metaphor Metaphors can highlight what something is like is not like Classical Approaches to Organizations Machine Metaphor o Organization is a machine o Specialization o Standardization o Predictable Fayol s Theory of Classical Management o 2 Influential Aspects Elements of Management Planning organizing command coordination control Principles of Management Scalar chain vertical hierarchy communicate w people 1 level below and 1 level above unity of command unity of direction same goal same supervisor span of control limit managing o Boss makes decisions rules employees do what they re told o Fair application of rewards financial motivation job security o Espirit de corps spirit of body body organization o Theory doesn t reflect most organizations describes what ought to occur Weber s Theory of Bureaucracy o 6 Main Tenants Clearly defined hierarchy Division of labor Centralized power Closed systems Importance of rules Functioning of authority Taylor s Scientific Management o Differs from Fayol and Weber o Focused on manager employee relationship and the way work is done o Observational learning and problems of piecework New workers learn from older workers and 1 cent 5 bricks o Scientific Management One best way to do everything Proper selection of workers Proper training of workers Inherent difference between managers and workers o Time and motion studies uneven work systematic soldiering eliminated Communication in Organizations Adopting a Classical Approach o Content task related No relational innovative communication o Direction downward vertical flow o Channel written o Style formal Perceiving Others Lecture Perception Selecting Organizing and Interpreting Information o Selecting o Organizing o Interpretation Structure information punctuation Assign meaning schemata attributions bias Salience visually audibly stimulating goals related to the communication Schemata mental structures of expectations Attributions internal and external o Internal related to a person o External unrelated to the person o Fundamental attribution error others behavior due to internal o Actor observer effect own behavior due to external cause Self serving bias o My behavior Good internal attribution Bad external attribution o Others behavior Good external attribution Bad internal attribution o Forming of Interpersonal Impressions Idea of who people are Gestalt vs Algebraic Impressions Gestalt They affect communication behavior and relationships o Overall positive negative impression o Formed quickly Halo Effect past experience help quickly form impression Horn Effect first time impressions can t be changed Algebraic o Positive gestalt positive attribution o Negative gestalt negative attribution o Reflecting and reevaluating o Compare assess and calculate o More flexibility accuracy o Form judgments on different criteria Human Relations Approaches to Organizations Origins o Fayol Weber and Taylor pay little attention to individual needs of employees Nonfinancial rewards Prevalence of social interaction o Hawthorn studies Illumination studies Relay assembly test room studies Interview program Bank wiring room studies Maslow s Hierarchy of Needs satisfy lower needs first o Physiological Needs earning a living wage o Safety Needs safe healthy working conditions o Affiliation Needs need to belong social relationships w co workers o Esteem Needs compensation recognition challenging job importance o Self Actualization Needs reach full potential McGregor s Theory X and Theory Y o Theory X o Theory Y Manager influenced by negative aspects of classical management Manager adheres to precepts of human relations movement Motivates workers Communication in Organizations Adopting a Human Relations Approach o Content task and relational o Direction vertical and horizontal o Channel emphasis on face to face o Style more informal Human Resources Approaches to Organizations Blake and Mouton s Managerial Grid o Leadership that promotes productivity and satisfaction o From 1 to 9 concern for workers o From 1 to 9 concern for productivity o Prototypes Country Club high concern low productivity Authority Compliance low concern high productivity Team Management high concern high productivity Impoverished Management low concern low productivity Communication in Organizations Adopting a Human Resources Approach o Content task social innovation o Direction all directions team based o Channel all channels o Style both but especially informal Systems Approaches Overarching Characteristics of Systems Theories o Open systems interrelated subsystems focus on survival hierarchical ordering interdependence permeability Properties of Systems o Holism more than just a sum of parts o Equifinality multiple paths to any outcome o Requisite Variety recognize react Cybernetic Systems reaching system goals o Process through which physical natural and organizational systems are steered toward Weick s Theory of Organizing reduce ambiguity o Organizations exist in an environment people are part of the environment o Goals reduce equivocality ambiguity o Open systems no one best way to achieve goal Studying Systems via Network Analysis o Network Analysis map relationships Identify how people communicate interact o Network Content links represent what flows between network members Goods information expressions of affect o Network Mode how links are actualized Can be face to face email Facebook etc o Network Density amount of interconnectivity between members o Nodes unit of analysis people companies etc Size of inclusiveness connected total nodes centrality density of node o Network Properties Strength Symmetry o Network Roles Of connections amount time Of relationships between nodes Bridges connects to outside groups Liaison connects 2 different groups Isolate no connections Listening Actively Multi tasking Elevating Attention o 1 develop awareness of attention level Identify peaks and valleys o 2 identify discrepancies Should listen but have trouble o 3 determine adequate attention level Calculate attention gap o 4 before and during discussion Boost salience of importance o Traits of Chronic Multi taskers difficulty listening Less likely to ignore irrelevant environmental stimuli ignore irrelevant thoughts suppress task switching control attention o Multi taskers training brain to only focus for short period of time Control what you can Practice mental bracketing Paraphrasing and Clarification o Do it before you