Chapters 4 and 5 Learning and Memory Learning a process through which experience produces a lasting change in behavior or mental processes Behaviorists J B Watson B F Skinner Classical Conditioning Introduced by Ivan Pavlov classical conditioning is a basic form of learning in which a stimulus that produces an innate reflex becomes associated with a previously neutral stimulus which then acquires the power to elicit essentially the same response Associations Reflex Stimulus response sequence Aversive Conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus is a stimulus that automatically provokes a reflexive response Unconditioned Response the response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning Conditioned Stimulus a previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned response Conditioned Response a response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus Acquisition the initial learning stage in classical conditioning during which the conditioned response comes to be elicited by the conditioned stimulus Extinction the weakening of a conditioned response in the absence of a unconditioned response Spontaneous recovery The unexpected reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay Stimulus generalization the extension of a learned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimuli Stimulus discrimination Learning to respond to a particular stimulus but not to stimuli that are similar Conditions for conditioning Contrast show differences when compared Contingency An event that may occur but that is not likely or intended a possibility Bait Shyness refers to animals avoiding foods that have previously been associated with gastric distress or other adverse effects Operant conditioning A form of behavioral learning in which the probability of a response is changed by its consequences that is by the stimuli that follow the response E L Thorndike B F Skinner Law of effect The idea that responses that produced desirable results would be learned or stamped into the organism Operant involving the modification of behavior by the reinforcing or inhibiting effect of its own consequences Reinforcement is a term used in operant conditioning to refer to anything that increases the likelihood that a response will occur Note that reinforcement is defined by the effect that it has on behavior it increases or strengthens the behavior Reinforcement contingency Relationships between a response and the changes in stimulation that follow the response Schedules of reinforcement are an important component of the learning process When and how often we reinforce a behavior can have a dramatic impact on the strength and rate of the response Partial reinforcement effect the response is reinforced only part of the time Learned behaviors are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement but the response is more resistant to extinction Increasing Responses Decreasing Responses Positive reinforcement A stimulus presented after a response and increasing the probability of that response happening again Negative reinforcement The removal of an unpleasant or aversive stimulus contingent on a particular behavior Extinction A process by which a response that has been learned is weakened by the absence or removal of reinforcement Operant extinction refers to the gradual weakening of a conditioned response that results in the behavior decreasing or disappearing Punishment An aversive consequence which occurring after a response diminishes the strength of that response Punisher is any aversive stimulus that is used as a consequence to an action for the purpose of decreasing or extinguishing repeated occurrences of that action Conditional reinforcers is anything that is paired with a primary reinforcer often food in a way that imbues the conditioned reinforcer with the impact of the primary reinforcer Primary reinforcers are naturally reinforcing which means there is no learning necessary for them to be reinforcing Token economics A therapeutic method based on operant conditioning by which individuals are rewarded with tokens which act as secondary reinforces The tokens can be redeemed for a variety of rewards and privileges Premack Principle The concept developed by David Premack that a more preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less preferred activity Shaping An operant learning technique in which a new behavior is produced by reinforcing responses that are similar to the desired response Instinctual drift The tendency of an organism s innate instinctive responses to interfere with learned behavior Comparative psychology is the study of animal behavior Cognitive maps Developed by Tolman a cognitive map is a mental representation of a maze or other physical space Observational learning A form of cognative learning in which new responses are acquired after watching others behavior and the consequences of their behavior A Bandura social learning theory states behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning Memory an information processing system that works constructively to encode store and retrieves information Herman Ebbinghaus known for the forgetting curve The decline of memory retention in time when there is no attempt to retain it Three Basic Tasks of Memory Encoding involves the modification of information to fit the preferred format for the memory system Storing involves the retention of encoded material over time Retrieval involves the location and recovery of information from memory Elaboration adding details to memories Recall bring a fact event or situation back into one s mind Recognition is identifying something you learned previously and is therefore stored in some manner in memory Three Stages of Memory Sensory memory Preserves brief sensory impressions of stimuli Working memory Most limited in capacity the working memory preserves recently perceived events or experiences for less than a minute without rehearsal Short term memory the original name for working memory Long term memory has the largest capacity and longest duration It stores material organized according to meaning Chunk a smaller number of meaningful units or information Chunking organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units and this frees up space in the working memory Maintenance rehearsal a working memory process in which information is merely repeated or reviewed