Chapter 2- The Measure of Mind: Methods of PsychologyStuttering5% of population2 to 5 times more likely in males than femalesStutterers have more active right hemisphere of brainNo cure but therapy helpsWhat Is Science?Faith- belief that does not depend on logical proof or evidenceScience- (latin-knowledge) a method for learning about reality through systematic observation and experimentationThe Scientific Mind-setObjectivity- the practice of basing conclusions on facts without influence of personal emotion and biasSubjectivity- conclusions reflect personal points of viewObjective facts can be altered easily when processed subjectively by individuals.Differences between science and everyday observationObjectivity vs subjectivitySystematic observation vs hit or miss observationScience relies on observable repeatable evidence, whereas everyday observation often ignores evidence especially when it runs counter to strongly held beliefsThe Importance of Critical ThinkingCritical thinking- the ability to think clearly, rationally, and independentlyNot built in but a skill people need to learnCritical thinking questions1) What am I being asked to believe or accept?2) What evidence supports this position?3) Are there other ways this evidence could be interpreted?4) What other evidence would I need to evaluate these alternatives?5) What are the most reasonable conclusions?The Scientific EnterpriseTheory- A set of facts and relationships between facts that can explain and predict related phenomenaBefore attempting to generate your own scientific questions, it pays to become very familiar with relevant theories and previous discoveriesPsychology as a Hub Science: Testing the effects of food additives on children’s behaviorDouble-blind procedure- A research design that controls for placebo effects in which neither the participant nor the experimenter observing the participant knows whether the participant was given an active substance or treatment or a placebo.Placebo- An inactive substance or treatment that cannot be distinguished from a real, active substance or treatment.Generating Good Hypotheses: Falsifiability and TestabilityHypothesis- A proposed explanation for a situation; usually taking the form “if A happens then B will be the result.”Hypotheses must be both falsifiable and testable.Falsifiable- A characteristic of a scientific hypothesis meaning that situations in which the hypothesis might be false can be imagined.Testable- A feature of a hypothesis that means it can be evaluated using known scientific methodsYou cannot prove a hypothesis is true but you can prove it’s falseEvaluating HypothesesPeer review- the process of having other experts examine research prior to its publicationReplication- repeating an experiment and producing the same resultsThis often happens when there are unconventional findings or ones that have not happened beforeAfter this if the data is replicated, it will quickly be accepted.How Do Psychologists Conduct Research?Research methodsDescriptive- surveys, case studies, and observations, provide a good starting place for a new research question.Correlational- help psychologists see how two variables of interest relate to one anotherExperimental- use experiments to test their hypotheses and to determine the causesof behaviorDescriptive methodsAllows researcher to make more careful, systematic, real-world observationsThe case studyCase study- an in-depth analysis of the behavior of one person or a small number of peopleMedicine, law, and business use this methodUseful for unusual situationsWhen large numbers of participants are not availableWhen a participant with unique characteristics is requiredInterviews, background records, observation, personality tests, cognitive tests, and brain imaging provide info necessary to evaluate a case Naturalistic Observation- an in-depth study of a phenomenon in its natural settingMuch larger group of peopleStrengthens our ability to apply our results to the population in generalAdvantage of observing individuals in their natural, everyday circumstances.When people know they are being watched- they might act differentlyWhen people don’t know they are being watched- might be ethically wrong=The Survey- a descriptive method in which participants are asked the same questionsAllow you to ask large numbers of people questions about attitudes and behaviorQuick and relatively low costSample- a subset of a population being studiedGood results require large samples that are typical or representative of the population you wish to describePeople have a tendency to conform to the expectations of othersCorrelational MethodsCorrelation- a measure of the direction and strength of the relationship between two variablesVariable- a factor that has a range of valuesMeasure- a method for describing a variable’s quantityBegin analysis of correlations by measuring our variables, then compare the values of one variable to those of the other and then conduct a statistical analysis of the resultsCan have positive, negative, or zero correlationThe two variables in a correlation can influence each other simultaneously.Third variable- A variable that is responsible for a correlation observed between two other variables of interest.Experimental MethodsExperiment- A research method that testes hypotheses and allows researchers to make conclusions about causality.The use of the formal experiment allows us to talk about “cause”How to design an experiment: A good experimental design features random assignment of participants to groups, appropriate control groups, control of situational variables, and carefully selected independent and dependent variables. Begin with a hypothesis which can be viewed as a highly educated guess based on systematic observations, a review of previous research, or a scientific theory.“If this, then that”Researcher needs to modify one or more variables and observe the changes to the others.Independent variable- experimental variable controlled and manipulated by the experimenter; the “if A happens” part of a hypothesisDependent variable- a measure that demonstrates the effects of an independent variable; the “result” part of a hypothesisControl group- a group that experiences all experimental procedures with the exception of exposure to the independent variableExperimental group- a group of participants that is exposed to the independent variableRandom assignment- the procedure in which each