Psychology Exam 2 Study GuideChapter 9: Sleep- 10-20 system: international system of putting on electrodeso standardized - Cortical synchrony: increase in voltage, decrease in frequencyo Demonstrated by non-REM sleep stages- Cortical desynchrony: decrease in voltage, increase in frequency- Stages:o Stage W: sleepy wakefulness (alpha waves)o Stage 1: lightest level of sleep; do not feel restedo Stage 2: characterized by sleep spindles, transition stage (10 minutes)o Stage 3: delta waves 1-4Hzo Stage 4: deep sleep, more than 50% deltao REM: similar to sleep stage 1, high arousal Conveys highest level of cortical desynchrony, leaves us relatively insensitive to environmental events- REM vs. Non-REMo Non-REM Move freely Blood pressure low Respiratory slow Bodily restorationo REM Inhibited movement Blood pressure fast and irregular Respiration fast and irregular Learning and memory Emotion and coping- Adults: 15% REM- Infants: 50% REM- Students require more REM than the average adult- Sleep Disorderso Insomnia: difficulty sleeping, waking up often throughout the night Related to heightened state of central nervous system arousalo Narcolepsy: strong attacks of sleepfulness Strongly correlated with features of REM sleep with high arousal and body paralysiso Somnambulism: sleepwalking (Stage 4) o Night terrors: strong nightmares in which the individual is capable of physical activity and may become aggressive (Stage 4)o Sleep Apnea: respiratory disorder More common in obese older womeno Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: infants suffocate in sleepo Bruxism: grinding teeth in sleep (Stages 1 and 2)o Enuresis: Bedwetting (Stages 3 and 4)- Sensory and Motor blockades; but wake to significant events- Neurotransmitters involved: o Acetylcholineo Serotonino DopamineChapter 10: Memory- 3 Process Memoryo Sensory Memory Iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) If survives, sent to short-term memory Duration 1-2 secondso Short-term Memory (Working Memory) Energy required to maintain Hippocampus activation Duration 20-30 seconds If information is not actively rehearsed and encoded, it is lost Mnemonic systems:- Peg-Word- Method of Loci- Narrative Chunking: making things in shorter combinations to better remembero Long-term Memory Duration lifelong Used for short-term memories Organization- Implicito Perceptualo Procedural- Explicito Episodico Semantic- Forgettingo Encoding/ storage failureo Make the material meaningful (deep processing/elaborative rehearsal) versus not (shallow processing/maintenance rehearsal)- Interference Factorso Retroactive: new information interferes with retrieving oldero Proactive: old information interferes with retrieving new- Serial Processingo Primacy: remembering what is first compared to others because it has been rehearsed more and did not have to fight other informationo Recency: most recent in memory, still available in short-term memory- Consolidation: the change of information from short-term to stronger, less-likely-to-forget memory- Retrograde Amnesia: forgetting past memories- Anterograde Amnesia: forgetting new memories- Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: we know something, but we can’t immediately remembero Retrieval Cues - Schema: framework for memories- Flashbulb memories: memories formed by events that are strongly personal or surprisingChapter 11: Learning- Classical Conditioning (reflexive learning)o Where previously neutral stimuli comes to elicit autonomic responseo Ivan Pavlovo Conditioned=learnedo Unconditioned=unlearnedo Acquisition: the initial learning phaseo Extinction: when a CR weakens and eventually ceases because it in so longer paired withCSo But, it can be revived by spontaneous recovery: when a CR suddenly returns after extinction is completeo Stimulus discrimination: when a CR is not exhibited in the presence of other stimuli because they are sufficiently different from the original CSo Stimulus generalization: a CR is triggered by a stimulus similar to the original CSo Conditioned taste aversion “Garcia Effect”: when getting sick once is paired with a food or drink leading to feeling nauseous in the presence of the same food or drink latero Conditioned Emotional Response: Watson and Little Albert- Operant Conditioning (voluntary learning by consequences)o Occurs when voluntary behavior is controlled by consequences producedo Law of Effect: people are more likely to do things that make them happy, and unlikely todo things that don’to Reinforcement and Punishment Reinforcement: causes behavior to increase Punishment: causes behavior to decrease Positive: add Negative: take awayo Discriminative stimulus: signals when to emit a particular behavior in order to obtain a certain outcome or consequenceo Primary reinforcers: biologically based and help us to survive and to maintinan homeostasiso Secondary reinforcers: acquire power to motivate behavior because of initial or higher-order conditioned associations with primary reinforcerso Schedules of Reinforcement: Fixed-interval: reinforcement is always given after a certain amount of time Variable-interval: reinforcement is given at inconsistent intervals of time Fixed-ratio: reinforcement is given after a certain number of behaviors performed Variable-ratio: reinforcement given after inconsistent number of behaviors- Variable reinforcement has less chance of extinction, better retainedo Premack Principle: behaviors naturally occurring at high rates could be used to increase behaviors occurring at low rateso Shaping: sequential reinforcement of behaviors that reflect successive steps to the occurrence of a more complex target behavioro Avoidance and Escape Learning Failure acceptor: low success seeker, low failure avoider Failure avoider: low success seeker, high failure avoider Success seeker: high success seeker, low failure avoider Overstriver: high success seeker, high failure avoidero Latent learning: when a behavior is learned, but is not displayed because reinforcing consequences not availableo Insight learning: the sudden discovery of a solution to a problem when one connects 2 or more elements of previously unconnected knowledgeChapter 12: Emotion and Motivation- Paul Ekman travelled to New Guniea- Primary emotions: cross-culturally universal emotions- Secondary emotions: harder to point out, come from primary- Display Rules: societal guidelines for how and when to express