Normative TheoriesDivine Command: Commands of a deity or higher power given through revelation, a canon of holy and/or sacred writings, or faith tradition.Prominent Philosophers: Robert Merrihew Adams.Natural Law: Moral laws are features of the world in a way similar to physical laws like those ofphysics or chemistry. They may or may not be the result of a divine being.Prominent Philosophers: Thomas Aquinas, Stoics.Virtue Ethics: Emphasis is on cultivation of character rather than on individual actions. Prominent Philosophers: Aristotle.Non-Consequentialism: Ethics which are ground the moral value of an action with volitions and willings, rather than outcomes or consequences.Deontology: An ethics based in duty. Deontology is often a kind of Non-Consequentialism, but itneed not be. The most prominent version of Deontology is Kantianism.Prominent Philosophers: Immanuel Kant.Categorical Imperative: A moral law which must always and unconditionally be followed in practical reasoning (ethics). Famous in Kantian ethics.“Act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law.” “Act as if the maxim of your action were to become by your will a universal law of nature.” “So act that you use humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means.” Consequentialism: Ethics which place the moral value of actions in the consequences they produce or states of affairs they actualize rather than on the willing or action type.Utilitarianism: An ethics which seeks to promote a principle of utility (often pleasure) to the greatest extent, in the greatest amount, for the greatest number.Prominent Philosophers: John Stuart Mill, Jeremy Bentham.Hedonistic Calculus: The calculation of the amount and types of pleasures produced by a given action. Act Utilitarianism: Makes the moral calculation for each action individually. Rule Utilitarianism: Considers the consequences of the proposed action being made into a rule, rather than just performed in this single instance.Kantianism : emphasizes the principles behind actions rather than an action’s results. Acting rightly thus requires being motivated by proper universal principles that treat everyone with respect. When you’re motivated by the right principles, you overcome your animal instincts and act ethically.ArgumentsValiditySoundnessAbortionThomsonMethodological Claim- PersonhoodViolinist Analogyuses story of violinist w/ fatal kidney disease to support conclusion that even if fetuses have moral standing & right to life they dont have right to continue using pregnant womans body without her permission (analogy)Argument : unacceptable when extreme conservatives dont allow abortion when pregnancy is result of rape, extreme conservatives are wrong to assume right to life of fetuses can only be overridden by right to life of pregnant womenBurglar AnalogyAnd we should also notice that it is not at all plain that this argument really does go even as far as it purports to. For there are cases and cases, and the details make a difference. If the room is stuffy, and I therefore open a window to air it, and a burglar climbs in, it would be absurd to say, "Ah, now he can stay, she's given him a right to the use of her house--for she is partially responsible for his presence there, having voluntarily done what enabled him to get in, in full knowledge that there are such things as burglars, and that burglars burgle.'' It would be still more absurd to say this if I had had bars installed outside my windows, precisely to prevent burglars from getting in, and a burglar got in only because of a defect in the bars. It remains equally absurd if we imagine it is not a burglar who climbs in, but an innocent person who blunders or falls in. Again, suppose it were like this: people-seeds drift about in the air like pollen, and if youopen your windows, one may drift in and take root in your carpets or upholstery. You don't want children, so you fix up your windows with fine mesh screens, the very best you can buy. As can happen, however, and on very, very rare occasions does happen, one of the screens is defective, and a seed drifts in and takes root. Does the person-plant who now develops have a right to the use of your house? Surely not--despite the fact that you voluntarily opened your windows, you knowingly kept carpets and upholstered furniture, and you knew that screens were sometimes defective. Someone may argue that you are responsible for its rooting, that it does have a right to your house, because after all you could have lived out your life with bare floors and furniture, or with sealed windows and doors. But this won't do--for by the same token anyone can avoid a pregnancy due to rape by having a hysterectomy, or anyway by never leaving home without a (reliable!) army.Good Samaritan vs. Minimally Decent SamaritanThe Good Samaritan went out of his way, at some cost to himself, to help one in need of it. We are not told what the options were, that is, whether or not the priest and the Levite could have helped by doing less than the Good Samaritan did, but assuming they could have, then the fact they did nothing at all shows they were not even Minimally Decent Samaritans, not because theywere not Samaritans, but because they were not even minimally decent. These things are a matter of degree, of course, but there is a difference, and it comes out perhaps most clearly in the story of Kitty Genovese, who, as you will remember, was murdered while thirty-eight people watched or listened, and did nothing at all to help her. A Good Samaritan would have rushed out to give direct assistance against the murderer. Or perhaps we had better allow that it would have been a Splendid Samaritan who did this, on the ground that it would have involved a risk of death for himself. But the thirty-eight not only did not do this, they did not even trouble to pick up a phone to call the police. Minimally Decent Samaritanism would call for doing at least that, and their not having done it was monstrous. After telling the story of the Good Samaritan, Jesus said, "Go, and do thou likewise." Perhaps he meant that we are morally required to act as the Good Samaritan did. Perhaps he was urging people to do more than is morally required of them. At all events it seems plain that it was not morally required of any of the thirty-eight that he rush out