Mendelian Pigs1. Gene vs. Allele2. Genotype vs. Phenotype3. Homozygotes vs. Heterozygotes4. Dominant vs. Recessive5. Codominance vs. Incomplete dominanceCodominance vs. Incomplete dominanceCodominance = heterozygous alleles are both expressed, resulting in a combined phenotype. Ex: A red and a white allele gives both red and white.Incomplete dominance = A red and a white allele gives pink.B = dominant blackb = recessive redBBBbbbGregor Mendelgarden peasMendelian Pigssimialr experimentsMendel develope coneptual model of how inheritance works.traist such as coat color determined by genes.copies of gene come in different versions, aka alleles.symbols for alleles in genes for pig coat colors:B = BrownW = Blackgametes = eggs or spermeach gamete gets one of two alleles.which allele the gamete gets is random.egg + sperm makes a zygote, with two alleles.Genotypes with two copies of same allele (BB or WW)are homozygotes.Genotypes with two different alleles, BW,are heterozygotes.Pure-breeding black pigs are homozygotes (BB)because if not, they would have a W, and W + another Wwould make a WW, or brown pig.back crosses = mating of generation 1 and pure-bred parent's parents.* dominant alleles are not always common* dominant alleles somtimes become less common in population over time.* recessive alleles can be common.= The real world is more complex than a punnet square.//Inside MelanocyteMelanin is produced and stored in melanosomes.Different melanosomes make different types of melanin.Eumelanin = black form of melanin.Pheomelanin = yellow-to-red form of melanin.Each melanosome contains 1 type of melanin.Melanocytes transfer mature melanosomes to nearby cells,keratinocytes, which give skin/hair color.Red melanosomes only create blonde or red hair.Black melanosomes only create black or dark skin.Black + red melanosomes creates brown hair/skin.MC1R Modulate Melanin Productionmelanocyte changes the type of melanin it produces.When MC1R is activated, cyclic AMP levels in the cell are high,and melanocyte produces eumalonosomes.Agouti Signalling Protein (ASP) released by nearby cells inactivates MC1R, and cAMP levels in the cell fall.When cAMP levels are low enough, the cell produces pheommelanosomes.The R allele is recessive to both B and W because MCIR, which iselevation of cAMP by B version of MC1R,which is "on" both swamp the null effect of R of MC1R,which is always off.Evolution for EcologySection 2. Logic of Natural SelectionEvolution for Ecology Section 3. Secondary ProductionPrimary production = new biomass is synthesized from inorganic molecules like CO2 and H2O.NPP = Net primary production- Fueled by primary producersTrophic level = position in the food chain- Only primary producers like plants can capture energy and produce raw material from CO2 and H2O.Heterotrophs = animal, fungi, most bacteria, needs to feed on others for energySecondary production = new biomass from organic matter such as food, to create tissueIngestion/Plant production = Consumption EfficiencyAssimilation/Ingestion = Assimilation EfficiencyProduction/Assimilation = Production EfficiencyI/P x A/I x P/A = P/P (Production/Plan production) = Trophic EfficiencyLitter production = plant production - ingestionAssimilation = ingestion - egestionRespiration = assimilation - sheep productionSheep not efficient at converting plant productioni into new sheep biomassHigh respiration rate, low production effciency. Also CE largely controlled by shepherdEcological EfficienciesBelow are the formulas for calculating ecological efficiencies for an herbivore (subscript h) eating plants (subscript p).Here, I is ingestion, A is assimilation, and P is production.Consumption Efficiency (CE):CE = Ih / PpAssimilation Efficiency (AE):AE = Ah / IhProduction Efficiency (PE):PE = Ph / AhTrophic Efficiency (TE):TE = Ph / Pp = (CE) (AE) (PE)-Food QualityTheory of Ecological Stoichiometry - This reaction is considered stoichiometrically balanced because both mass and energy are conserved.Ph/Ah Sheep1.3/26 = 0.05Mice0.013/0.64 = 0.02Grasshopper1.1 /2.8 = 0.39On average, endothermic organisms (birds, mammals) have much lower production efficiencies than ectothermic (fish, insects -iguana)- Bc endothermic must devote more energy to keeping warmFMR = Field Metabolic Rate- Reptiles lowest, then birds, then mammals- Smaller mammals are less effective than larger mammalsReview:Ecosystems have two food chains:1. Grazer food chain (plants, herbivores, carnivores)2. Detrital food chain (detritus, decomposers, then carnivores from grazer food chain)● Secondary production = rate at which biomass collects in an ecosystem’s heterotrophs.● Flow of energy through a consumer organism: Ingestion, assimilation, egestion, respiration, production.● Use flows to calculate efficiencies - ratio of energy flow in to energy flow out.● Efficiencies are affected by quality of food and type of consumer.● Endothermic animals have higher metabolic costs and thus lower production