10/11/16-10/13/16Gender and Biology10/11/16-10/13/16Gender and Biology- What is Gender?o Gender is the social classification and cultural values of masculine, feminine, and othero It is NOT synonymous with biological sex Male and female are biological categories; man and woman are gender categorieso Because gender is free to culturally vary independent of biological sex, it can embody more diversity than biological sex does alone- The Many Dimensions of Gendero Gender roles: culturally defined roles for gendero Gender relations: variations in the way members of different genders relate, such as independently and autonomouslyo Gender ideology: meaning and value ascribed to being woman, man, or other gender- Biological basis of sexo Chromosomal: XX and XY and variants Determines hormonal differences Determines physiological differenceso Together these determine physical differences Primary sexual characteristics (genitals) Secondary sexual characteristics (voice, breasts, hair distribution) Sexual dimorphic differences (height, weight, musculature;although these heavily affected by environment, too)o More gender categories than there are biological categories- How many genders?o Many cultural traditions recognize 3 genders; some equivalent ofman, woman, and then one that is both. Two-spirit persons of native American tribes compromise a 3rd gendero Transgendered is increasingly recognized as a distinct gender, as with Hijra of South Asia. Other classification schemes abound- Status of Women Varies across Cultures and through Timeo Two systematic variables affecting relative status of women: Women’s contribution to production- Not always a reliable indicator of status Women’s roles in nondomestic (public) affairs- Inside-outside dichotomy: when domestic and publicspheres are sharply segregated, women’s status is generally low- Variation of Gender Relations among Forager Societieso Washo Nevada; men and women, cooperate on game driveso Hadza Tanzania; men and women, forage independentlyo Tiwi North Australia; men hunt, engage in intergroup conflict, and compete for wiveso Inuit Alaska, Canada; men nearly exclusive food providers- Kalahari Foragers: gender Equality?o The many roles of women, domestic and nondomestic, contributed to their relatively high status in traditional San society Child bearing and rearing Marriage Production Distribution Inheritanceo Beaded headbands are exchanged among women in regional networks of mutual support2o Mongongo nuts are a staple of Kalahari diet, and women have dominion over that aspect of the economy- Colonial Incursions Compromised Gender Equality Fasto Contact with European colonists led to gender inequality among indigenous people worldwide With large labor offered only to men, men had exclusive access to cash Women’s production diminished Men also experienced greater contact with “outside” world, hence developed more political influence Efforts to westernize and Christianize often entailed enforcement of many fidelity, patriarchal control, and no rights to divorce for womenMarriage and Family- What is Marriage?o 3 universal principles of marriage marriage is about alliances marriage is about allocated resources assigning social obligations through contractual relationshipso Views on marriage vary cross-culturally and evolve through timeo From textbook: “A culturally sanctioned union between 2 or more people that establishes certain rights and obligations between the people, between them and their children, and between them and their in-laws” Includes rights and obligations related to sex, labor, property, child rearing, and status- Marriage and the Regulation of Sexual Relationso Marriage often (though not always) grants rights of exclusive sexual access Helps track paternity and ensure legal rights of offspring3o Incest taboo-universal but variably defines; present in all societies Reason for taboo?- To avoid harmful genetic effects of inbreeding?- To preserve the stability of the family?- To promote alliances with other social groups?- It reduces genetic variabilityo Endogamy and exogamy Endogamy-within one’s group Exogamy-outside one’s group- Kissin’ Cousins? U.S. Law and the Incest Tabooo Many cultures prefer marriages between first cousins; the U.S. is virtually alone among developed between developed nations in its outspoken opposition to themo Marriage between first cousins allowed in 18 states and D.C.- Forms of Marriageo Heterosexual and Homosexualo Monogamy-both partners have just one spouse (most common) Serial monogamy-an individual marries a series of partnersin successiono Polygamy-one partner has multiple spouses (preferred by most cultures) Polygyny-one man with multiple wives Polyandry-one woman with multiple husbands- Marriage and Economic Exchangeo Bride wealth (aka bride-price)-payments of money or valuable goods to a bride’s parents or other close kin Used to compensate for natal household for the loss of laboro Dowry-payments that the bride’s family gives to the bridegroom,his parents, or his relatives as a condition of the marriage Meant to ensure her future well-being and protectiono Arranged marriage-used to boost the economic and political advantage of the family unit4- Postmarital Residence Patternso Residence patterns establish where a newly-married couple will live following marriageo There are three common residence patterns: Patrilocal-in which a married couple lives with the husband’s father’s family Matrilocal- in which a married couple lives with the wife’s mother’s family Neolocal-living in a locality apart from the husband’s or wife’s relatives- Is Marriage Universal?o According to our textbook, yeso One possible exception, the Mosuo of SW China Called “land of the walking marriage” After puberty, Mosuo girls are free to receive male visitors A lover may stay overnight but always returns the next day to his mother’s house and his primary responsibilities- Family and Householdso In nonwestern societies, household and family not necessarily the same (conjugal) family: social unit based on marital ties household: residential unit in which economic production, consumption, inheritance, child rearing, and shelter are organized and carried outo Mundurucu of the Amazon Men and women do not live together Children live with mothers; boys