- Theories of sleep - (1) protectim - (2) recuperation - (3) aids memory - (4) growth - growth hormones is released by pituitary gland during delta sleep - Dreams: mental experience during sleep that include vivid visual images - research methods: - surveys - diary - dream (sleep) lab- content analysis of dreams:- putting the context of dream reports into categories and statistically examining the occurrence of the context - REM sleep: Dreams- 80%-90% of the dreams reported when awakened from REM sleep - 15% of time during non-REM sleep - REM dreams are often more vivid than non-REM dreams - Where dream context comes from?- waking life affects dream context - influencing dreams - (1) first night effects: many sleep characteristics are unusual the first night in a sleep lab - including dream - (2) red-tinted goggles worn while awake- first dream is bother in red, next dream pink, then no influence - (3) lucid dreaming:- know you are dreaming and can often take voluntary control of action - (4) stimulate while asleep during REM - water: incorporated 42% of the time- light: incorporated 23% of the time- tone: incorporated 9% of the time- nightmares: anxiety-arousing dreams that lead to awakening, usually from REM sleep - more common in children - false awakening: dream wake up, dream do something, dream go back to sleep- asleep the whole time - Theories of dreaming- dreams have meaning - Freud- dreams have meaning that can be interpreted - dreams as ways to solve problems- O T T F F S S E ? N- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 - Biological Theories - dream as the byproduct of neurological - activation-synthesis theory: dreams are caused by the physiological processes of the brain.Chapter 7: Learning - Learning: a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience and practice - associative learning: learning two events go together - classical conditions: associate two stimuli - operant conditioning: associate a response and its consequence - Classical conditioning (Peutovium conditioning):- a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus - Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)- Operant conditioning - B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) - operant conditioning: type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcer and weakened if followed by a punisher- skinner box: a small enclosure in which responses of an animal can be recorded and consequences of the punishments can be controlled - law of effect:- rewarded behavior is stamped in- punished behavior is stamped out - formulated by Edward Thornake - negative reinforcer: a stimulus that when removed after a response strengthens the response - negative reinforcement is NOT punishment - sometimes some reinforcers aren't obvious - primary reinforcers: a innately reinforcing stimulus- usually satisfies a biological need - e.g., food, water - continued reinforcers (secondary reinforcer): a stimulus that gains it’s reinforcing power from association with primary reinforcer- token: can exchange for primary reinforcer- punishment: an event that decreases the behavior that follows it- some possible problems with punishment - general suppressions of behavior - does not guide the organisms to the desired behaviors - may increase aggressiveness - undesirable behavior may reappear in safe settings- in real life you don’t get reinforced after every desired act, or punished after every undesired act- yet learning occurs - how can this happen?- several factors - delayed reinforces - skaping: reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior - discriminant stimulus: a signal that a response will be reinforced or punished - Clever Hans effect: inaduorltally cue on animal or human - Extinction: gradual weakening and disappearance of a learned response- reinforcement is stopped- resistance to extinction: the organisms continues to make a learned response after reinforcements is stopped - continuous reinforcement: desired response is reinforce every time- Partial (intermittent) reinforcement: responses are reinforced, sometimes not reinforced - only some responses are reinforced- takes longer to learn partial than continuous- but partial reinforcement leads to resistance to extinction- train organism on continuous reinforcements and gradually switch to partial reinforcement - 4 basic schedules of reinforcement - (1) fixed ratio: behavior is reinforced after a set number of responses - results in high ratio of responding- but will extinguish relatively quickly - (2) variable ratio: behavior is reinforced after un unpredictable number of responses - results in a high rate of responders that is resistant to extinction- e.g., slot machines - (3) fixed interval: the first response after a fixed time period is reinforced - responses decrease between reinforcements - responses increase greatly near reinforcement time - (4) variable interval: the first response after a varying time interval is reinforced- results in a low rate of responding but persist for a long period of time (highly resistant to extinction) - Chapter 8: Memory- Memory: the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information- flashbulb memory: a clear memory of a emotionally significant moment or event- includes memory of incidental details - Narrative reconstruction: changes story slightly, fill in gaps, omit details- modify memory so it has a meaning structure- Memory as information processing- requires:- (1) encoding: getting information into storage- (2) storage: retention of information - (3) retrieval: getting info out of storage- Atkinson and Shiffrin Model of Memory (1968)- external events—) sensory memory (info lost)—) short term memory—) long term memory - Sensory Memory: brief storage of information- iconic (visual): about 1 second- echoic (auditory): about 4 seconds- most info is lost- some goes onto short term memory- short term memory (working memory): activated memory that holds a few items briefly- info person is dealing with at the moment - holds a small amount of information - lasts about 20 seconds - can be made to last longer- rehearsal: repeating information- long term memory: permanent memory stored - large capacity- lasts long time- includes knowledge, skills, and experiences - 3 processes-