1. Forces of evolution- natural selection, mutation, gene flow, genetic drift. Selection- directional, over dominance, under dominance. See graphs.Drift- heterozygotes goes down, homozygotes- either one goes up to being fixed and the other two go down towards extinction.Mutation- forward mutation from A  a, p will go down, q will up. Backwards mutation is the reverse. Depends on the fitness of the mutation if we keep heterozygotes or not. Mutation depends on what is going on with selection. There is a mutation selection balance.Recessive: AA (red), Aa (pink) , aa (white)Math for Recessive: q= square root (mu/s)See graphs.Gene flow- makes everything the same. Everything else changes thing. What happens to p or q depends on what migrants are being brought in. If p has a lot of migrants coming in and the selection favors p, increase in p. If we are bring in a lot of q but selection does not like q, then there will be a decrease in q.2. Natural selection is directed towards a phenotype that has a higher fitness. Genetic drift is a random chance event that genetic drift will be fixed. Genetic drift is more common in small populations like a Founder’s event or bottleneck.3. Stabilizing selection favors intermediates. It decreases variability in a population and DOES NOT change the average value of a trait. Disruptive selection increases the variability in a population and favors values of a trait that have high fitness. It DOES NOT change the average value of a trait.4. Stabilizing favors intermediates but does not require heterozygotes to have the highest fitness. It does not care about the genotype, it only cares about the phenotype.5. Deleterious recessive (slower)- wants to take out aaDeleterious dominant (faster)- wants to take out AA or Aa6. If it is haploid, the probably of fixation is 1/n. If it is diploid, the probably of fixation is 2/n.7. 1) hetero 2) homo 3) hetero1 and 3 are advantageous because they are heterozygotes.2 does not have heterozygote advantage so it will increase in frequency under strong stabilizing selection.8. Zygotic gene flow is when the whole organism movies. Diploid adults, juveniles, and zygotes can disperse meaning two organism can move. When people have sex, they move. Gametic gene flow is when the organism is stable like a tree however the seeds and the pollen moves. Only when egg and sperm move. Mostly haploid gametes are dispersed.9. Inbreeding is when close relatives mate and typically occurs in small populations. Causes increases homozygosity. There is a decline in the average fitness. Exposure to a lot of deleterious alleles in the homozygotes. IN INBREEDING, THE ALLELE FREQUENCIES DO NOT CHANGE. IT WILL NOT CAUSE A DEVIATION FROM HWE, MEANING THAT IT IS NOT A FORCE OF EVOLUTION. Genetic drift is the random fixation of an allele due to chance and typically occurs in small populations. It will lead to random fixation in either p or q. Typically, the heterozygote will decrease with genetic drift and the homozygosity will increase. Genetic drift can cause speciation. Genetic drift is a force of evolution because it causes deviations between p and q, which ultimately affect HWE.*If it does not affect HWE, it is NOT a force of evolution.10. Inbreeding is when close relatives mate. The phenotypic consequence is inbreeding depression, which is a decrease in average fitness of a population due to deleterious alleles. Populations can breed through interbreeding depression and purge out all deleterious alleles. Inbreeding is not always bad. Inbreeding is good if you live in a constant environment, however it is bad when you live in a changing environment. If you are already at the highest fitness and the environment, it is better to mate with someone who is at the same fitness because the children will stay at the same fitness. Inbreeding is bad in a changing environment because adaptions are needed and would not happen with inbreeding.11. Genetic drift will play a larger role in the smaller population which will increase the random fixation. The outcome of directional natural selection will be the same in each population. It will cause rapid change. Genetic drift will affect a smaller population more than selection would.12. Drift influences small populations when s < 1/Ne. When reversed, genetic drift overcomes selection.13. Gene flow is the movement of genes from one population to the other. The consequences are that it makes populations that exchange immigrants more genetically similar. Example: If Y had a population and X had a population and X migrated over to Y, their offspring is a mix of both populations. It is a homogenizing affect on genetic variation and slows down the rate at which populations can become genetically different. Creates speciation. Gene flow makes populations the same whereas mutations, genetic drift, and selection make populations different.14. Mating with your first cousin or close relative. Inbreeding.15. No because cheetahs have very small genetic variation due which lead them to interbreeding depression. They are not suffering from interbreeding depression because they have already been through it. Because they have been through it, it is known that they can go through it. Roaches have such high genetic variation, is not even an option for them.16. To keep advance alleles around, you must be in a stable environment to prevent the negative affects of inbreeding. If you are the best fitness in a stable environment, inbreeding is fine because your fitness is already high. When you are in a constant environment, you will not be as adapted to that specific environment, making your fitness decrease, which will in turn cause inbreeding depression.17. Ne is the affected number of individuals (which means the number of individuals that will produce). It helps to determine how genetically small a population is and if genetic drift will prevail or natural selection.18. ½ N is diploid and 1/N is haploid.19. Population Bottleneck is when the population decreases in size due to disaster which reduces the variation in the gene pool.20. When you have a founder’s effect, it is because you begin with a small diversity in the first place.21. Continuous (height), merilistic (plant petal number), threshold (If you have a certain value, you are one phenotype. If you go above that value, you have a different phenotype). The environment does affect inheritance controlling. Yes, the gene can be passed on, but it will not be manifested