Biology 1442 1st Edition Exam # 2 Study Guide Chapter 40-43Chapter 401. Convergent Evolution- Natural selection shapes adaptations when diverse organisms face the same environmental challenges a. Occurs across an entire population in order to select the variations that best meet the challenges of animals’ environments.2. Penguins, seals, and tuna have body forms that permit rapid swimming, because…a. The shape is a convergent evolutionary solution to the need to reduce drag while swimming 3. Endocrine system- transmits hormone signals through the blood(or circulatory system)a. Coordinating body functions via chemical signals is accomplished by the endocrine system4. Different types of tissues a. Epithelial tissues- covers the entire body forming a protective barrier, lines organs, cavities, and allows for surface for exchange of fluid and air on the other side b. Simple epithelial- single layer of cellsc. Stratified epithelial- several layers but appear stratified d. Cuboidal epithelial- present in the kidneys e. Simple columnar epithelium- wide like bricks on the end f. Simple squamous- like a fried eggg. Pseudo stratified epithelium- looks like multiple layers but actually just 2 layersh. Epithelial tissues have 2 facesi. Apical surface- faces outward and is always exposed ii. Basal surface- attached to underlying tissuesi. Connective tissues- binds and supports all other tissues j. Reticular tissues- join connective to adjacent tissue k. Elastic tissues- stretch and snap back to the original length l. Loose connective tissue- connects skin to the inside of the body, collagenous/ropelike m. Fibrous tissue- (tendons)n. Adipose tissue- stores fat, pads, and insolates the body o. Cartilage- strong flexible, shock absorbing surface p. Bone- matrix of collagen, hard minerals q. Blood- in charge of transport, red blood cells carry O2, WBC, and Platelets r. Nervous tissues- communication network s. Muscle tissues- filaments of actin and myosini. Skeletal muscle tissue- voluntary movements ii. Cardiac muscle tissue- pumps blood involuntarily iii. Smooth muscle tissue-moves walls of internal organs, involuntarily 5. Animals must have constant exchange between environment and cells for materials like waste, gases, and nutrients we must have blood, interstitial fluid, or hemolymph 6. How do cells communicate with each other?a. Cells communicate with each other using the nervous system to transport information, send information using hormones or chemical signals and changes in the target cells.7. Difference between smooth muscle/ skeletal musclea. Voluntary movements happen with skeletal musclesb. Involuntary movements occur in smooth muscles and cardiac muscles 8. Know different types of cells epithelial, adipose…9. What is homeostasis? And why is it important?a. Maintaining internal balance regardless of the external environment 10. Positive vs. negative feedbacka. Negative feedback- internal variables steady, allows only small fluxuations ex. Above 70…70.1 degree thermostat regulates b. Identify examples of positive feedback11. Endotherm vs. Ectotherms a. Endotherms- require more ATPb. Ectotherms- tolerate more variation in temperature12. Types of heat exchange, radiation, conduction, evaporationa. Radiation- heat taken in from the sun, absorbed or pushed out by sweatb. Conduction- wind/ heat passing through c. Evaporation- touching an item to take heat stored in it 13. Standard metabolic rate vs. basal metabolic rate a. Standard metabolic rate-ectotherms at rest have a specific body temperatureb. Basal metabolic rate- endotherms at rest have a comfortable temperature Chapter 41 and Chapter 42 14. Essential nutrient vs. regular nutrienta. Essential nutrients- materials that an animal must obtain through the diet because they cannot be assembled from simple organic molecules i. Amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals b. Regular nutrients- can be obtained through an animal’s diet 15. Vitamins: water vs. fat soluble a. Water soluble- Vitamin B and Vitamin C b. Fat soluble- Vitamins A, D, E, and K16. Feeding mechanisms a. Fluid feeders- suck nutrient- rich fluid from a living host, like mosquitos b. Substrate feeders- animals that live in or on their food source, like earth worms they eat decomposed matter in the soil that they live inc. bulk feeders- eat relatively large pieces of food, like humans, sharks, and snakes 17. What is the point of digestion?a. Digestion ins the breakdown of food into small enough particles that they digestive system can absorb for energy b. What chemical reaction is occurring, when we do this?i. Enzymatic hydrolysis splits bonds in molecules with the addition of water18. Why do we have a large surface area in the gut?a. Because of villi and microvilli that are exposed to the intestinal lumen which creates a brush border that increases the rate of nutrient absorption19. What is parastalsis?a. rhythmic contractions of smooth muscles in the wall of the alimentary canal20. Where nutrient absorption occurs, where is bacteria found?a. Nutrient Absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum of the duodenum as well as in the small intestine 21. Know what cells are involved in releasing HCL, Pepsin, and pepsinogen a. Partial cells secrete hydrogen and chloride cells separately into the lumen(cavity) of the stomachb. Chief cells secrete inactive pepsinogen which is activated to pepsin when mixed with hydrochloric acid in the stomach 22. Protein/carbs/fats where are they broken down?a. Carbohydrate digestion begins in the oral cavity or mouth, continues through the stomach(not really breaking down any further here), and small intestine with pancreas and epithelium enzymes b. Protein breakdown begins in the stomach and continues into the small intestine c. Nucleic acid digestion occurs throughout the entire small intestine broken down by pancreatic nucleases, nucleotidases, nucleotidases, and phosphatases which are enzymes from the epithelium of the small intestine d. fat digestion occurs only in the small intestine with pancreatic enzymes Carbohydrate DigestionProtein Digestion Nucleic Acid DigestionFat DigestionOral Cavity, Pharynx, and EsophagusPolysaccharides and Disaccharides Smaller polysaccharides and maltose Stomach ProteinsSmaller polypeptidesSmall intestine (enzymes from the pancreas)Disaccharides Smaller poly-peptides DNA, RNA Fat(triglycerides)Smaller peptidesNucleotidesGlycerol, fatty acids, monoglycerides Small Intestine (enzymes from the