POLI 107 1st Edition Lecture 10Modern Political Theory: LockeLocke’s Backdrop- Wrote at a point in English history when the questions of monarchical power and religion had been resolved- Parliament extended its authority over the crown; Protestantism was the official religion - English political theory strikes a secular tone, favoring toleration over dogmatism in the spirit of compromise of the ageTwo Treatises of Government- Locke’s political theory is concentrated in the Two Treatises - Published in 1690 to lend support to the Glorious Revolution- The Second Treatise aims for a general theory of politicsLocke’s Medieval Influences- Locke drew from medieval PT, especially the work of Richard Hooker. In particular, Lock valued their positions on:- Moral/political significance of reason- Moral limits on the exercise of power- The responsibilities of the ruler to the ruled- The primacy of low over government- Locke updated medieval PT to reflect the times- Secularized chief claims- Sometimes blended elements that did not really work well together, leading to fuzziness and inconsistenciesContra Hobbes…- Locke contrasts with Hobbes’ support for an absolute monarchy- To Locke, the community is sovereign, and the government attends to the interests of the community- Exercise of power by the government is limited by moral and constitutional constraints- According to Locke, the community achieves a greater state of well-being together, mustering the talents and skills of its members toward a shared interest. The government enables collective action and prevents social fragmentation. Contract Theory- Contract Theory proceeds according to two stages, and reflects a scientific (i.e. deductive, logical approach) to political theory- Looks to the state of nature to understand the tensions which government must resolve- Two critical questions for Contract Theoyr:1. Why is government necessary? Why sacrifice freedom?2. What form best addresses the problem of the state of nature?Locke’s Contact Theory- Government power is limited, granted by the consent of the governed, and aims at the common good- All people are free and equal in the state of nature, which charges the government with protecting our liberty- The state of nature is one of peace, goodwill, mutual assistance, and preservation- Reasonable people will live peacefully togetherWar: What is it good for?- Key question: why resort to war when the dominant condition of nature is peace?- Not due to an innate aggressive instinct, though we do possess a right to self-preservation.- In the state of nature, we are all 1) executors of the laws of nature, 2) the ultimate interpreters of our rights, and 3) legitimate punishers of those who violate the laws of nature- Each is her/his own judge- One cause of war: those who abandon reason and violate the laws of nature must be punished- Another cause of war: when the right to self-preservation leads people to cross the line as judges, confused by passions and revenge Locke’s Pragmatic Skepticism- Locke is skeptical of our ability to exercise reason under any and all circumstances, especially when self-preservation is involved- War is not automatic whenever interests conflict; but when no authority exists, war becomes more likelyBroader Implications?- The greater concentration of reasonable people, the less likely the state of war will emerge- Reason makes the law of nature available to us all which imparts an understanding of how to achieve the balance between self-preservation and general welfare. #1: Why do we need government?- Turning to the first essential question for contract theorists: why do we need government?- If everyone obeys the laws of nature, then there is no need for civil society… - People struggle executing the laws of nature free from bias…the state of nature is not as it should be: harmonious- Government serves our egoist desire to enjoy our natural rights while avoiding the state of war - Unlike Hobbes, Locke does not locate the need for government in innate selfishness and aggression- Instead, Locke sees human interaction as troubled by inconveniences due to natural scarcity and hardship – these inconveniences diminish the enjoyment of our natural rightsLocke’s Theory of Property- Locke’s theory of property sketches the logic behind government, and is meant to be analogous to all other rights - The world was given to mankind to hold in common, with the exception of our own person - This is the origin of possession: essentially, we possess ourselves- Anything we mix with our labor becomes ours, people create value in something which is otherwise worthless if produced by nature alone- Property promotes self-preservation and the enjoyment of our rights- Property if also a manifestation of our exceptional human traits- Property is part of the natural order- Potential source of conflict: when individuals impede the efforts of others to acquire property- This is a real concern: there is no rational limitation upon the accumulation of property; only natural - Waste is another obstacle to enjoying our rights- The individual must strike a balance between one’s industriousness and one’s ability to consume - Scarcity is also a problem because it can encourage envy and conflict over the common stock- Everyone has an equal claim to the common stock, however; but scarcity makes relative power more important than it should be- Spoiling is a greater concern as human industriousness increases our productive capacity- Money circumvents spoiling and enables further accumulation of property at the cost of inequality and relative poverty- Economic inequality however is simply a reflection of a natural inequality of ability- Though we have an equal right to natural freedom and the common, inequalities of merit enablesome to do more with their freedom and labor- Furthermore, the ‘new economy’ based on money unleashes human industriousness, which onlyenhances our ability to enjoy our rights and enable our preservation- Money is another product of our innovative abilities’ therefore it is natural and good - How does this development create an incentive to join civil society?- We can now accumulate more property, which requires greater protection than the individual can provide for his or her self. The Flaws of the State of Nature- There is no organizational structure to guide human behavior when needed – no regulative or coercive power