KIN 386 1st EditionExam # 3 Study Guide This study guide includes additional notes from class that are not included in the power points on Canvas. The additional notes are in red. Skill, Retention, and TransferSpecificity of Practice- In general, specificity of learning suggests that what you learn depends largely on what you practice.- Practicing in a particular environment or workspace often leads to better- performance mainly in that workspace.- specific practice is most important part of skillLearning Versus Performance During Practice- The learner who attempts to perform as well as possible in practice tends to be inhibitedfrom modifying movements from attempt to attempt.- Providing both practice sessions and test sessions during practice can help overcome thedetriment to learning.- combo of skill (practice) variety and test performanceBenefits of Practice- improved capability to perform some skill on future demand- improved perceptual skills- improved attention through reduced capacity demands and reduced- effector competition- improved motor programs- improved error detection- Fitts and BernsteinStages of Learning- Fitts’ stages were specifically designed to consider perceptual–motor learning placing heavy emphasis on how the cognitive processes invested in motor performance change as a function of practice.- Bernstein identified stages of learning from a combined motor control and biomechanical perspective.Fitts’ Stage 1: Cognitive Stage- The dominant questions concern goal identification, performance evaluation, what to do, when to do it.- A lot of intructions, questions, and feedback; cognitive- Verbal and cognitive abilities dominate, and verbalizable information is useful.- Gains in proficiency in this stage are very rapid and large, indicating that more effective strategies for performance are being discovered.- improvements are big in this stageFitts’ Stage 2: Associative Stage- The learner’s focus shifts to organizing more effective movement patterns.- In skills requiring quick movements, such as a tennis stroke, the learner begins to build a motor program to accomplish the movement requirements.- In slower movements, such as balancing in gymnastics, the learner constructs ways to use movement-produced feedback. - anticipation occurs, thinking ahead improvesFitts’ Stage 2: Fixation Stage- Inconsistency gradually decreases—closed-skill movements begin to be more stereotypicand those open-skill movements become more adaptable.- Enhanced movement efficiency reduces energy costs, and self-talk becomes less important for performance.- Learners begin to monitor their own feedback and detect their errors.Fitts’ Stage 3: Autonomous Stage- It is usually associated with the attainment of expert performance.- The decreased attention demanded by both perceptual and motor processes frees the individual to perform simultaneous higher-order cognitive activities.- Self-confidence increases and the capability to detect and correct one’s own errors becomes more fine-tuned.Bernstein’s Stage 1: Reduce Degrees of Freedom- Degrees of freedom- ability to slowly release all controls about movement so it is not so stiff- The initial problem facing the learner is what to do with all of the possible degrees of freedom of movement that are available for the body.- Bernstein considered that the solution was to reduce the movement of nonessential or redundant body parts in the initial stage of learning by freezing degrees of freedom.Bernstein’s Stage 2: Release Degrees of Freedom- The learner attempts to improve performance by releasing some of the degrees of freedom that had initially been frozen.- Particularly useful in tasks that require power or speed, because the degrees of freedom that have been released could allow for faster and greater accumulation of forces.Bernstein’s Stage 3: Exploit Passive Dynamics- The performer learns to exploit the passive dynamics of the body— essentially, the energy and motion that come for free with the help of physics.- The movement becomes maximally skilled in terms of effectiveness (achieving the result with maximum assuredness) and efficiency (minimum outlay of energy).Limitations of Fitts’ and Bernstein’s Stages- Neither was meant to describe learning as a series of discrete, nonlinear, and unidirectional stages.- Fitts considered performance change to be regressive as well as progressive.- Task differences also play an important role in the stage views of both Fitts and Bernstein.Breaking Down Skills- When should a skill be broken into parts?- When should it be practiced as a whole?- How do speed and accuracy influence skill acquisition?- How can one best learn skills that must be performed equally well on both the dominantand non-dominant sides?Part Practice Method- Simplifies the skill- Lets learners experience early success, leading to increased motivation- Lets learners practice on problem areas without wasting time on what’s already been masteredWhole vs. Part Practice- Items to consider:- Nature of the skill- Capability of the learner- Part practice techniques- Attention cueingNature of the SkillTask complexity:◦How many subcomponents?◦How many information processing demands?Task organization:◦How much does the performance of each part of the skill depend on the component that precedes it?Part Practice TechniquesPart Practice Method:- simplifies the skill- lets learner experience early success, leading to increased motivation- lets learners practice on problem areas without wasting time on what's already been mastered.Segmentation- part whole method- practicing each part separately until a certain level of proficiency has been determined- progressive-part method- same as part-whole but there is more than one step; chunking- repetitive-part method- instead of studying independently, you add to the parts and continue to addFractionization- Skill components that are typically performed simultaneously are partitioned and practiced independently- Effectiveness is questionable◦ Whole practice is recommended for some tasks, such as those that require simultaneous use of arms and legsSimplification- Reduce the level of difficulty of the task (or some aspect of it):- Modify equipment- Reduce coordination requirements- Change the environment’s complexity- Use skill-building activities and lead-up games- Sequence from simple to complexSpeed–Accuracy Tradeof- Spatial accuracy:◦ An emphasis on speed