PSY 331 1st EditionExam # 2 Study Guide Social Cognition 2 & Person PerceptionWe See what we Want- Remember the self:o We seek positive self view (high SE)o We’ll work for ito Can we go too far?- Positive Illusion: seeing self in (objectively) overly positive lightMental health: classic definition- Positive self-regard- Ability to care for others- Ability to do productive work- Accurate view of reality- Survey of 1 million high school students:o 70% above median in leadership abilityo 60% above median in athletic abilityo 85% above median in ability to get along with othersPositive Illusions - Taylor & Brown (1988)- 3 types of positive illusions:o Unrealistically positive views of selfo Unrealistic optimismo Exaggerated perceptions of control- Unrealistically positive views of self:o We are all better than average Our friends, tooo Give selves credit for success, but not blame for failure E.g.: test grade- Self-serving biaso Rate ourselves higher than observers do Study: group interaction task, personality ratings - Unrealistic optimism:o We tend to be optimisticThese notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute. We believe present is better than past We expect future to be even better Particularly for us vs. otherso Expect what we want Not what is objectively likely- Exaggerated perceptions of controlo We tend to overestimate our ability to control eventso Gambling E.g.: you vs. other rolls the dice E.g.: langer lottery studyo Illusion of unique invulnerability  Bad things wont happen to me…- Because I control my outcomes- E.g.: flying vs. drivingCosts and benefits- Benefits of positive views/optimism o Task persistence & effort Trying in face of adversity  More likely to push envelope- Ultimately, better outcomes (on whole)o Physical health If optimism makes stress seem less “stressful”… Can have health benefits- E.g.: chronically seeing events as manageable vs. not- Costs of positive views/optimismo Maladaptive persistenceo Narcissism- Controlo Invulnerability illusion Physical health?- Not so goodo Critically ill patients Focus on controlling symptoms, life tasks = good adjustment Focus on impossible cure = not so goodSummary:1) We see what we expect:- Time and effort saver- Maintain inaccurate beliefso Act on them Self-fulfilling prophecy2) We see what we want- Positive illusions can be good…- But only in moderation- E.g.: seeing more control where some exists, not nonePerson Perception- How we form impressions of others & make inferenceso What they sayo What they doo What they look likeNonverbal Behavior- Six universal facial expressions:o Happinesso Sadnesso Surpriseo Fearo Disgusto Anger- How might emotional displays be functionally adaptive?o Immediately communicates infoo E.g., disgust- Gestureso E.g.: ok (symbol)- Personal spaceo (Example – close talker Seinfeld clip)- Body languageo E.g.: power posesAttributions- Inferences about the causes of behavior and events- Important distinction: internal (person) vs. external (situation)o Examples: Laying on the couch all day: lazy or ran a marathon A driver cuts you off: what a jerk or driving to hospital Coworker brought you a cupcake: nice person or wants something Your partner is being short with you: what a jerk or had a bad day- Bad behavior?o External elicits more sympathy- Good behavior?o Internal makes us like them more- Not always straightforwardo E.g., Why did Justin Bieber assault the limo driver? He’s a jerk (internal) vs. he was drunk (external) But aren’t these both internal states?- He isn’t drunk all the time- Consistency is important- Kelley’s (1972) Covariation Modelo How we make attributions- 3 types of info we use:- E.g.: student sleeps in classo 1) Consensus Does everyone act this way toward stimulus?o 2) Consistency Does this person act this way toward the same stimulus at other times/in other situations?o 3) Distinctiveness Does this person act this way only toward this particular stimulus?- Why did the student fall asleep?- 3 types of attributions – beyond int/exto Entity Object toward which behavior is directed- E.g.: my class is boringo Circumstances Conditions under which event occurs- E.g.: the student didn’t sleep well last nighto Person  Personality/ability- E.g.: the student is lazy- What if we have limited info?o E.g.: job interviewo Use general knowledge about others/the world- Discounting principle:o Our confidence in a given cause is reduced if other causes seem plausibleo Everyone would act this way? Decrease confidence it’s the person- Were not always rational- Fundamental attribution error:o We overestimate the impact of dispositional causes and underestimate the impact of situational causes of others’ behavior E.g.: StarbucksFundamental Attribution Error- Jones & Harris (1967)- Read essay written by other student- Manipulations:o Stance: pro vs. anti Castroo Freely chosen vs. assigned- DV:o “Is the writer pro or anti Castro?”- Results:o Participants made conclusions based on stance Regardless of whether topic was freely chosen or assigned- Implicationso Interpersonal relationshipso Perceptions of the advantaged and disadvantaged E.g.: financial/social resources from birth- Causes?o 1) Motivational influences Bad things happen Attributing people’s outcomes to something about them (vs. chance) reduces anxiety Just world belief:- People get what they deserve- “What goes around comes around”- Implications: rape, domestic abuse victimso 2) People are more salient than situations Taylor and Fiske (1975) Watch video of 2 people conversing Manipulation:- Video showed only 1 person or both DV: Ratings of who “set tone” Results: participants who saw only 1 person assigned that person responsibilityAttitudes and PersuasionWhat is an attitude?- Very difficult questiono Disagreement in the field- Technical definition (Eagly & Chaiken 1998):o Psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavoro “Psychological tendency?”- Easy definition: positive or negative evaluation of an object- We have attitudes about all kinds of thingso Ourselves, other people, abstract concepts- Why are attitudes interesting…?o Big reason: influence behaviorEffects of attitudes on