- According to philosophers of science, science advances byo Normal science (gradual accumulation of more and more knowledge through hypothesis testing, eventually leading to integrative theories).o Scientific revolutions: new paradigms and resulting methods to measure the things important in the paradigms.o Invention of new tools.- Electro-encephalographo In an EEG, electrical signals outside of the skull are used to measure neuronal firing underneath the electrodeo Amplitude (height) is the proportional to number of neurons firing at onceo Closeness together tells how closely timed the firing are- Magnetoencephalography using Superconducting Quantum Interference Deviceso In a MEG, magnetic fields are detected by using a helmet that uses measurement points much closer together than in an EEG.- CT-Scano Computerized tomographyo In a CT-Scan, also called “Cat” Scans, X-rays of the brain at a variety of angles are taken, and the result is combined via computer- PET-Scano In a PET-Scan, which is Positron Emission Tomography, radioactive glucose (fast decaying) is ingested. Active neurons are gluttons for glucose. PET-scans give a real-time record of where mental activity is greatesto PET scanning equipment requires nearby particle accelerator to create short-lived radio-isotopes- Functional MRIo In an fMRI, the head is put in a strong magnetic field. The field aligns the spin of the molecules. A brief pulse of radio waves briefly disorients the atoms, and as they reorient, they give off E-M radiation. An fMRI machine detects areas of the brain where there is a lot of blood flow, which is characteristic of neurons that are being used- Epilepsyo Cause Brain damage oozing chemicals which build up in nearby synapseso Rapid Synchronous firing (pulsing wave)o Positive feedback loopo Location of brain damage is related to type of seizure Grand mal- Motor areas Petit mal- Sensory Areaso Treatment Chemicals Surgery Cut the corpus callossum (split brain)- Sensationo Processes by which stimuli are detected and encoded- Perceptiono Processes by which stimuli are organized and interpreted o Highly dependent on context, which involves knowledge, the situation,learning, perceptual set, expectations, etc.o Magic tricks Manipulate the context so that you see and hear what you thinkyou are seeing or hearing- Person with split brain: Animal in left visual field, conveyed to right side of brain, can be afraid of it but not name it- Person with split brain: Animal in right visual field, conveyed to left visual field, can name ot but but might not be able to point to a picture of it with left hand (which is controlled by right side of brain)- The Strange Case of Phineas Gageo Problems in impulsiveness and poor moral control; people at first thought his moral brain had been damaged o Hannah Damasioo Antonio Damasioo Lessons: Sometimes the brain is just a by-product There is always a physiological substrate that can explain behavior at that micro-level Gage’s problem: gut responses worked, but could not be transmitted to the prefrontal cortex- Sensory