Biol 1103 1st EditionFinal Exam Study GuideSummaries of the Readings:Structure of Prokaryotes:- Four common structures: Plasma membrane (barrier), cytoplasm (inside nucleus), nucleic acids (genetic material), and ribosomes (protein synthesis).- Unicellular organisms with no nucleus and have a single chromosome in nucleoid. - The plasma membrane is selectively permeable.- There is high osmotic pressure in the cell because there is a high concentration of dissolved solutes in the cytoplasm.- The cell wall protects the cell and gives them shape. It contains peptidoglycan for strength.- Bacteria are either: Gram positive (thicker cell walls) or gram negative (thin cell walls). - Reproduction is asexual and rapid. Viruses- Viruses are acellular, have no plasma membrane, internal organelles, or metabolic process, and they do not divide. - They infect all organisms and replicate.- Viruses have a nucleic-acid core surrounded by a protein. Some have an outer lipid covering and others do not.- Viruses attach to cells and produce change within the cell. - The six stages of virus infections are: o Attachment- virus attaches to a specific membrane on the host cell.o Penetration- virus is injected into the host cell. o Uncoating- the viral capsid is removed once inside the host cell and viral nucleic acid is released.o Replication- the virus replicates its DNA or RNA.o Assembly- the viral mRNA is translated into viral enzymes and capsid proteins.o Release- new virus strands are released into the host organism.- Viruses can cause a variety of disease that may or may not be treatable by antiviral drugs or vaccines. - Vaccines can be useful in helping the immune system control or destroy a virus.- Antiviral drugs target enzymes and proteins of the virus genes.Innate Immunity- The immune system is a complex multilayered system for defending against threats to homeostasis.- There are two defense systems: innate immune system and the adaptive immune system. - Innate immunity is not caused an infection or vaccination but from pathogens effecting the system. It is the first response. - The second response of the innate system is chemical signals that produce a fever response and inflammation. - The innate immune system identifies the nature of a pathogen through a combination of molecular and cellular responses.- The cells involved in the innate immune response are mast cells, T-killer cells, monocytes, macrophage, and neutrophils. - Lymphocytes are white blood cells that are associated with the adaptive immune response and respond to infected cells. Adaptive Immunity- The adaptive immunity is an immunity response that occurs after exposure to an antigen.- Antigen is a molecule that reacts with the cells in the immune system to stimulate a response.- The two types of lymphocytes in the adaptive immune response are B and T cells. T cells prompt B cells to produce antibodies.- Antibodies are proteins that bind to pathogens and mark them for destruction. - Active immunity- production on antibodies in response to an antigen- Passive immune response- antibodies come from an outside source. - T cells are unable to recognize pathogens without assistance. - Antigen-presenting cell (APC) detects, engulfs, and informs the adaptive immune response about an infection.- Primary immune response- a pathogen that has not been encountered before.- Memory cell is an antigen-specific B or T cell that does not differentiate into an effector cell. - Secondary immune response- the host is re-exposed to the same pathogen type. Introduction to Immunology Tutorials- Pathogens are disease-causing micro-organisms.- Nearly all pathogens are antigens so they stimulate an immune response. However, not all antigens are pathogens. - Innate defenses are nonspecific so they target any pathogen.- Phagocytic cells include granulocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells that are part of the whit blood cells. - Adaptive immune responses are antigen-specific, and its response includes the production of antibody and destruction of infected cells. - The adaptive immune response is divided into two systems:o Humoral system- makes antibodies to eliminate pathogens and their products. B cells are the specialized white blood cells that bind to antigens.o Cellular system- eliminates pathogens and regulates the body’s entire immune response. T cells can detect the presence of a pathogen specific antigen fragments and activate a killing response. Disruptions in the Immune System- Pathogens can hinder the adaptive immune system and so can inappropriate responses of immune cells and molecules. - Immunodeficiency is a failure, insufficiency, or delay in the response to the immune system. This can allow tumors or pathogens to effect the body.- Hypersensitivity is a maladaptive immune response toward harmless foreign substances or self- antigens.- Allergies are the immune reaction that results from immediate hypersensitivity where an antibody-mediate immune response occurs. - Autoimmunity is a type of hypersensitivity to self-antigens.- An autoantibody is an antibody that inappropriately marks self-components as foreign. Summaries of the Notes:Bacteria and Viruses:- Bacteria is a single-celled living prokaryotic microorganism that has a cell wall. Theyare present in all living organism. - A virus is acellular and requires a living host to survive. It is not alive, and it causes illness in the host. - One method to treat a bacterial infection is through antibiotics. Another way is through phage. - An experiment found that using phage as a treatment of cholera is not an effective way to treat the disease. HIV and the Immune System- Bacteria has ribosomes and a cell wall. It does not have a nucleus so DNA and RNA is floating freely in the cytoplasm. - Viruses do not have ribosomes or a cell wall. It does not have a nucleus, but DNA andRNA is enclosed inside a coat of protein.- Bacteria reproduces by fission (a form of asexual reproduction).- Viruses reproduce by invading a host cell. It takes over the cell to make copies of the viral DNA and RNA. - A possible mechanism by which people can be resistant to an infectious disease, like HIV, is through “Super TH Cell” mechanism because they have a mutation in the CCR5protein. Innate and Adaptive Immunity- Antigen- One or more molecule that an antibody can bind to and recognize as foreign.- Pathogens- a disease causing agent- Innate immunity is not caused an infection or vaccination but from pathogens