Slide 1Slide 2By Root or By BranchRelations Between Means and Ends (2b)The Test of “Good” Policy (3b)Noncomprehensive Analysis (4b)Achieving a Degree of ComprehensivenessSuccession of Comparison (5b)Slide 9Successive Comparison as a SystemLindblom’s World ViewWhy is this important to Public Sector Organizations?Charles E. LindblomCharles E. Lindblom The Science of The Science of ““Muddling Through”Muddling Through”published 1959published 1959Alice ChristianAlice ChristianPA 302PA 302February 13, 2006February 13, 2006Rational Comprehensive (Root) Successive Limited Comparisons (Branch)Clarification of values or objectives distinct from and usually prerequisite to empirical analysis of alternative policies.Selection of value goals and empirical analysis of the needed action are not distinct from one another but are closely intertwined.Policy-formulation is therefore approached through means-end analysis: First the ends are isolated, then the means to achieve them are sought. Since means and ends are not distinct, means-ends analysis is often inappropriate or limited.The test of a “good” policy is that it can be shown to be the most appropriate means to a desired end. The test of a “good” policy is typically that various analysts find themselves directly agreeing on a policy (without their agreeing that it is the most appropriate means to an agreed objective).Analysis is comprehensive; every important relevant factor is taken into account.Analysis is drastically limited:I)Important possible outcomes are neglected.II)Important alternatives potential policies are neglected.III)Important affected values are neglected.Theory is often heavily relied upon. A succession of comparison greatly reduces or eliminates reliance on theory.By Root or By BranchBy Root or By Branch Intertwining Evaluation and Intertwining Evaluation and Empirical Analysis (1a)Empirical Analysis (1a)How to rank values?How to rank values?““A problem of adjustments at A problem of adjustments at the margin” p. 180the margin” p. 180Relations Between Means Relations Between Means and Ends (2b) and Ends (2b) ““How can an administrator know How can an administrator know whether he has made a wise or whether he has made a wise or foolish decision if he is without foolish decision if he is without prior values or objectives by prior values or objectives by which to judge his decisions?” p. which to judge his decisions?” p. 181181The Test of “Good” Policy The Test of “Good” Policy (3b)(3b)““Good” if it can be shown to attain a Good” if it can be shown to attain a specific objective; it is not possible to specific objective; it is not possible to judge in the abstract. judge in the abstract. Judge by agreement on the policy Judge by agreement on the policy itself itselfNoncomprehensive Analysis Noncomprehensive Analysis (4b) (4b) Need to simplify by limiting policy Need to simplify by limiting policy comparisons to those that differ in comparisons to those that differ in relatively small degrees from present relatively small degrees from present policies.policies. Relevance as Well as RealismRelevance as Well as RealismCompare with existing policiesCompare with existing policiesAchieving a Degree of Achieving a Degree of ComprehensivenessComprehensiveness““Every important interest or value Every important interest or value has its watchdog.” P. 183has its watchdog.” P. 183Succession of Comparison Succession of Comparison (5b) (5b) Theorists and PractitionersTheorists and PractitionersTheory is limited in that:Theory is limited in that:1. It is “greedy for facts”1. It is “greedy for facts”2. It is insufficiently precise.2. It is insufficiently precise.“Policy…is made and re-madere-made endlessly.”endlessly.”Successive Comparison Successive Comparison as a Systemas a System““It is a method or system, it is not a It is a method or system, it is not a failure of method for which failure of method for which administrators ought to apologize.” P. administrators ought to apologize.” P. 185185Diversity within agencies improves Diversity within agencies improves decision-making.decision-making.Lindblom’s World ViewLindblom’s World ViewLindblom’s worldview is pragmatic Lindblom’s worldview is pragmatic and activist.and activist.His theory of Incrementalism grew His theory of Incrementalism grew out of his extensive studies of welfare out of his extensive studies of welfare policies and trade unions throughout policies and trade unions throughout the industrialized world.the industrialized world.Retrieved from Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_E._Lindblomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_E._Lindblom Feb 7, 2006 Feb 7, 2006Why is this important to Why is this important to Public Sector Public Sector Organizations?Organizations?Compared with Taylor’s “One Best Compared with Taylor’s “One Best Way,” Lindblom advocates for Way,” Lindblom advocates for constant input into systems by those constant input into systems by those involved.involved.““Watchdog” system will keep values Watchdog” system will keep values in balance.in