BIOL 243 1st EditionExam # 2 Study Guide Lectures: 1 - 7Lecture 1 (February 4)I. DNA Replicationa. Strands of DNA separate and a new strand is synthesized using the old as a template with help from DNA polymeraseLecture 2 (February 11)II. Cell Cycle-exact replicationa. G1 (gap 1)-can vary among cellsb. S-DNA synthesisc. G2 (gap 2)-cells prepare for chromosomes to be segregatedd. 22 chromosomes plus sex chromosomes (XX/XY)III. Protein Synthesisa. DNA→RNA→Proteinsb. Genetic Code-3 nucleotides long (codon)c. Transcription-RNA polymerasea. DNA→RNAb. Initation, elongation, terminationd. Translationa. RNA→proteinsb. rRNA, mRNA, tRNAIV. Tissuesa. Nervous, Muscle, Epithelial, Connectiveb. Epitheliala. Found on free surfaces, glands; have very little intercellular spaceb. Classified based on cells layers and the shape of free surfaceLecture 3 (February 18)Tissues (cont.)c. Simple Squamous ET-found where diffusion and filtration take place; capillaries and lungsd. Stratified Squamous ET-important for protection; skin, mouth, anus, vaginae. Simple Columnar ET-secretion and absorption; digestive tractf. Pseudostratified Columnar ET-ciliated; respiratory tract, trachea liningg. Stratified Columnar ET-not common; male urethrah. Simple Cuboidal ET-secretion or absorption; kidneys, sweat glands, salivary glandsi. Stratified Cuboidal ET-not commonj. Transitional ET-can stretch and change shape; bladderk. Endothelium-line blood vesselsl. Mucous membranes-goblet cells-secrete mucinm. Grandular epitheliuma. Exocrine-secrete onto a free surface; sweat, salivaryb. Endocrine-secretion absorbed into the blood n. Classification of exocrine glands is based on their mode of secretiona. Merocrine-secretions pass thru membranes; sweatb. Holocrine-secretion due to cell death; sebaceousc. Apocrine-part of the cell buds off; mammaryo. Classify exocrine glands based on duct structurea. Simpleb. Compoundc. Tubulard. Aveolarp. Connective tissue-abundant and multifunctional; good blood supplyq. Extracellular Matrix (ECM)a. Ground substance- can be watery → hardb. Fibers1. Collagenous-strong, white2. Reticular-thin, branch3. Elastic-stretchV. Connective Tissuea. Loosea. Areolar-watery ground substance (GS); few collagenous fibers; fill body spacesb. Adipose-fatc. Reticular-backbone of other cells; lymphatic organsb. Densea. Regular-parallel array of collagenous fibers; tendons and ligamentsb. Irregular-interwoven fibers; dermis, capsulesc. Elastic-vocal cords, large arteriesLecture 4 (February 20) VI. Serous Membranesa. Made of epithelial and connective tissuesb. Visceral-touching organc. Parietal-touching cavityVII. Cartilagea. Cells-chondroblasts→chrondrocytes in lacunaeb. ECM-GS=chrondrin; firm with fibersc. No blood supplyd. Types:a. Hyaline-firm but pliable; embryonic skeleton, between bonesb. Fibrocartilage-thick bundles of fibers; intervertebral discsc. Elastic-external ear, epiglottisVIII. The Integumentary System-epithelial, connective and nervous tissuesa. Functions-protection, regulation, excretion, sensationb. Skin- 2 layersa. Epidermis-stratified squamous; kerinocytes1. Stratum corneum2. Stratum granulosum3. Stratum spinosum4. Stratum basaleb. Dermis-has 2 layers: papillary (areolar) and reticular (dense irregular)c. Thick skin also has stratum lucidum: palm of hands and sole of feetd. Melanocyte-produce pigment melanin, a dark pigment induced by sunlighte. Hypodermis-areolar and adipose tissueIX. Glands of the Skina. Sweata. Eccrine-merocrineb. Apocrine-large; secrete into hair folliclesc. Ceruminous-ear waxb. Sebaceousa. Secrete sebum into hair folliclesb. Reduce growth of bacteriaX. Pathologies of the Skina. Basal Carcinomab. Squamous Carcinomac. Burnsa. 1st degree-only epidermis damaged; red skinb. 2nd degree-epidermis and upper dermis damaged; blistersc. 3rd degree-epidermis and dermis destroyedLecture 5 (February 25)XI. Skeletal Systema. Bones and Cartilagea. Axial Skeleton: 80 bones (skull, vertebrae, ribs, sternum)b. Appendicular: 126 bones (appendages)b. Characteristicsa. Endoskeletonb. Connective Tissue1. osteoblast→osteocyte-synthesis of bone2. osteoclast-breaks down bonec. Extracellular Matrix1. Ground substance-inorganic salts (Ca, P); hard and resists compression2. Fibers-collagenousd. Functions1. Support2. Protection3. Determine movement4. Mineral reservoir5. Hematopoiesis6. Storage e. Classification1. Long2. Irregular3. Flat4. Shortf. Types of Bone structure1. Compact-surface of all bones2. Spongy-many flat bones3. Yellow marrow cavity-fatg. Compact Bone1. Osteon-basic unit of organization2. Central canal3. Lacunae4. Canaliculi5. Lamellae6. Volkmann’s canalh. Two types of ossification1. Endochondriala. Cartilage bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilageb. Osteoblasts gather at perichondriumc. Chondroblasts enlarge and died. Osteoblast begin ossifying at center2. Intramembranousa. Matrix of collagenous fibersb. Osteoblasts invade spongy bonec. Periosteum formsd. Compact bone forms at surfacei. Increase in length of long bone1. Before birth the diaphysis is ossified2. After birth the epiphysis is ossified3. Epiphyseal plate-hyaline cartilage-where growth in length occurs4. Depending upon growth hormonea. early ossification-pituitary dwarfb. delay in reduction-pituitary giantj. Bone remodeling1. Rate differs2. Controls:a. Feedback mechanismsi. Calcium low-parathyroid hormone is released and stimulates osteoclastsii. Calcium high-calcitonin released by the thyroid-inhibits osteoclastsb. Response to stress-gravitational pullk. Malfunctions1. Rickets-soft bones2. Osteoporosis-loss of bone mass3. Fracturesa. Simple-broken in 2 piecesb. Compound-bone goes through skinc. Depressed-pushed inwardd. Comminuted-splinteredl. Healing Process1. Blood Clot-hematoma2. Fibroblasts invade and form fibrocartilagenous callus3. Osteoblasts invade and lay down bony callus4. Remodeling to generate boneLecture 6 (February 27)XII. Articular Jointsa. Extent of movement is determined by structure, ligament, and muscle tensionb. Classificationa. Movement1. Synarthoses-none2. Amphidiathroses-slight3. Diathroses-muchb. Structure1. Fibrous-ligaments2. Cartilaginous-cartilage3. Synovial-joint cavityc. Fibrous Joints1. Sutures-allow no movementa. Fontanel-soft spotb. Synostosis-fully fused2. Syndesmoses-ligament holds it together; allows no movementd. Cartilagenous Joints1. Synchondroses-hyaline cartilage; slight to no movement2. Symphyses-fibrocartilage; vertebrae; amphiarthoses3. Synovial-diathroses;