BIol 243 1nd EditionExam # 1 Study Guide Lectures: 1 - 6Lecture 1 (January 14)Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology IPhysiology-the study of the function of body partsAnatomy-the study of the structures and the relationships between them1. Gross Anatomy2. Microscopic Anatomya. Histology-tissuesb. Cytology-cells3. SystemicLevels of Organization1. Chemical-atoms form molecules (proteins, nucleic acids, carbs)2. Cellular-cells are the basic unit of organization in living things3. Tissue-groups of similar cellsa. Epithelial-cover body surfaces; line cavities, tubesb. Muscular-can contractc. Nervous-neurons, transmit a signald. Connective4. Organ-2 or more tissues (ex: stomach has epithelial, muscle and connective)5. Organ System6. Organismal-combination of all of the aboveMaintenance of life (musts for living beings)1. Boundaries2. Movement3. Digestion4. Metabolisma. Anabolic-building moleculesb. Catabolic-breakdown of molecules5. ExcretionHomeostasis-ability of the body to maintain stable internal conditions; dynamic; maintained by the nervous and endocrine systemsStimulus→Receptor→Control Center→Activate effectors→Stimulus1. Negative FeedbackEffect of heat reduced: Heat→heat detected→signal to brain→effector (sweat) Negative Feedback-ex: glucose levelsIncreased levels=stimulate insulin release from pancreas, uptake of glucose by liverDecreased levels=glucagon released by pancreas, stimulate the liver to release glucose2. Positive FeedbackInfrequent, amplifying Ex: Blood clotting, childbirthInfant pushes on the cervix, which increases pressure, which stimulates oxytocin, which stimulates contractions of the uterus, which increases pressure on the cervixLecture 2 (January 16) Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology I (cont.)Anatomical Position-default positionProne-face down, lying downSupine-face up, lying downDirectional Terms-1. Superior-towards the head2. Inferior-away from the head3. Ventral/Anterior-in front of4. Dorsal/Posterior-behind5. Medial-towards the midline6. Lateral-on the outer side7. Intermediate-between a more medial and a more lateral structure8. Proximal-closer to the point of attachment9. Distal-farther from the point of attachment10. Superficial-towards the surface11. Deep-away from the surfaceRegional Terms1. Cephalic-head2. Cervical-neck3. Thoracic-chest4. Abdominal-abdomen5. Pelvic-pelvis6. Pubic-genitals7. Upper limb8. Forearm9. Lower LimbBody Planes1. Sagittal-divides body down median2. Transverse-superior and inferior parts3. Frontal-anterior and posterior partsBody Cavities1. Dorsal- Cranial and Vertebral cavities2. Ventral-thoracic and abdominopelvic cavitiesChemistryMatter-occupies space and has massEnergy-capability to do workComponents of energy-potential energy and kinetic energyForms of energy1. Chemical-stored in chemical bonds2. Electrical-movement of charged particles3. Mechanical-movement of matterElements-O,N,HAtoms-smallest part of an element that still has the properties of the elementNucleus-protons (+) and neutrons (0)Electrons-(-)-surround the nucleusIsotope-same number of protons but different number of neuronsReactivity-function of the number of electrons on the outer shell (valence)Inert-outer shell full, doesn’t react with other elementsReactive-incomplete valence shell (H, C, O, Na)Ionic Bond-complete transfer of electrons from one atom to anotherCovalent-sharing of electronsNonpolar-electrons shared equallyPolar-Electrons shared unequallyHydrogen bond-H covalently bound to an electronegative element (ex O,N)BiochemistryInorganic Molecules: Water-make up 60-80% of living things-high heat capacity-prevent sudden changes in body temperature due to H bonds-high heat of vaporization-heat it takes to convert a liquid to a gas; important for cooling water; takes heat with it when it evaporates-polarity/solvent-oxygen has polar, covalent bonds; nonpolar substances are insoluble-cushioning-protects the brainLecture 3 (January 21)Organic moleculesOrganic molecules contain carbon, have covalent bonds and can form bonds with four other molecules1. Carbohydrates: CHO in 1:2:1 ratioa. Monosaccharide: glucose, ribose, fructoseb. Disaccharides: sucrose, maltose, lactose; formed by dehydration reactionc. Polysaccharides: glycogen, starchd. Function: energy source, structure (DNA), cell recognition2. Lipids-insoluble in water, nonpolara. Neutral fats (triglycerides)-function as an energy source, protection, insulationb. Saturated fat-solid at room temperaturec. Unsaturated fat-one or more double bond, liquid at room temperatured. Phospholipids-in membranes; polar head, nonpolar taile. Steroid-cholesterol: important in membrane, building block of all steroids3. Proteinsa. Amino acids (20)b. AA’s vary based on their R group c. AA’s linked by peptide bond via dehydration synthesisd. Proteins can have any number of AA’se. AA’s can be present in any orderf. One chain of AA’s is known as a polypeptideg. Some proteins have two or more polypeptide chainsh. 4 levels of structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternaryi. Function depends on structurej. Denatured-lost structurek. Types include fibrous (collagen, keratin) and functional (hormones)l. Enzymes-biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energyLecture 4 (January 23)Organic Molecules (cont.)4. Nucleic Acids- DNA/RNAa. Nucleotide: nitrogenous base (A, T, C, G, U), sugar (deoxyribose or ribose), phosphateb. Nucleotides are joined together by a phosphodiester bond-sugar phosphate backbonec. 2 strands of DNA double helix joined together by a hydrogen bondd. DNA contains genetic materiale. RNA decodes genetic materialf. ATP/ADP/AMP are examples of nucleotides-high energy phosphate bonds can be hydrolyzed to release energyCellsCells are compartmentalized into organelles1. Mitochondria-2 membranes, contain their own DNA, powerhouse, apoptosis (programmed cell death)2. Ribosomes- RNA and protein, small with large and small subunit, function in synthesizing proteins from RNA templates3. Endoplasmic Reticulum-2 partsa. Rough (RER)-synthesize proteins that will end up in ER, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and those that will be secretedb. Smooth (SER)-detoxification, phospholipid synthesis4. Golgi apparatus-modifies and packages proteins, series of membranes5. Lysosomes-hydrolytic enzymes, acidic, destroys things6. Flow of proteins: RER→Golgi→lysosomes; transport occurs through vesiclesLecture 5 (January 30)Cells (cont.)1.